Chapter 2 Voltage and Current

Introductory Circuit Analysis

Robert L. Boylestad

2.2 Atoms and Their Structure

Nucleus
Protons
Electrons
Neutrons

Atoms and Their Structure

Shells and subshells of the atomic structure

Free electrons

2.3 - Voltage
The flow of charge is established by an external
pressure derived from the energy that a mass has by
virtue of its position: Potential energy
Energy: the capacity to do work
If a mass (m) is raised to some height (h) above a
reference plane, it has a measure of potential energy
expressed in joules (J) that is determined by
W (potential energy) = mgh
where g is the gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)

Voltage
A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between
two points if 1 joule (J) of energy is exchanged in
moving 1 coulomb (C) of charge between the two
points
The unit of measurement volt was chosen to
honor Alessandro Volta

Voltage
A potential difference or voltage is always
measured between two points in the system.
Changing either point may change the potential
difference between the two points under
investigation.
Potential difference between two points is
determined by: V = W/Q (volts)

Voltage
Notations for sources of voltage and loss of
potential
E - Voltage sources (volts)
V - Voltage drops (volts)

Potential The voltage at a point with respect to

another point in the electrical system. Typically
the reference point is the ground, which is at zero
potential.

Voltage
Potential difference: The algebraic difference in potential (or
voltage) between two points of a network.
Voltage: When isolated, like potential, the voltage at a point
with respect to some reference such as ground.
Voltage difference: The algebraic difference in voltage (or
potential) between two points of a system. A voltage drop or
rise is as the terminology would suggest.
Electromotive force (emf): The force that establishes the flow
of charge (or current) in a system due to the application of a
difference in potential.

Voltage
Summary
The applied potential difference (in volts) of a
voltage source in an electric circuit is the
pressure to set the system in motion and
cause the flow of charge or current through the
electrical system.

2.4 - Current
The free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire
or any other solid conductor of electricity
With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in
a conductor in any one direction is zero
Basic electric circuit

Current
Safety considerations
Even small levels of current through the human body
can cause serious, dangerous side effects
Any current over 10 mA is considered dangerous
currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock
currents over 100 mA can be fatal
Treat electricity with respect not fear

2.5 Voltage Sources

dc Direct current
Unidirectional (one direction) flow of charge
Supplies that provide a fixed voltage or current

Voltage Sources
dc Voltage sources
Batteries (chemical action)
Generators (electromechanical)
Power supplies (rectification)

Voltage Sources
Batteries: combination of two or more similar cells
A cell being a fundamental source of electrical energy

developed through the conversion of chemical or solar

energy
All cells are divided into Primary and Secondary types
Primary type is not rechargeable
Secondary is rechargeable; the cell can be reversed to restore its capacity
Two most common rechargeable batteries are the lead-acid unit (primarily
automotive) and the nickel-cadmium (calculators, tools, photoflash units and
shavers)

Voltage Sources
Each cell establishes a potential difference at the
expense of chemical energy and each has the
following components:
Positive electrode
Negative electrode
Electrolyte (the contact element and the source of
ions for conduction between terminals)

Voltage Sources
Alkaline primary cells
Powered zinc anode (+)
Potassium (alkali metal) electrolyte
Manganese dioxide, carbon cathode ()

Voltage Sources
Lead-acid secondary cell
Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte
The electrodes are spongy lead (Pb) and lead
peroxide (Pb02)

Voltage Sources
Nickel-cadmium secondary cell
Rechargeable battery (Capable of 1,000 charge/discharge cycles)
charged by a constant current source

Nickel-hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells

Nickel-hydrogen cell currently limited primarily to space vehicles
Nickel-metal hydride cell is actually a hybrid of the nickel-cadmium
and nickel-hydrogen cell Expensive, but it is a valid option for
applications such as portable computers

Voltage Sources
Solar cell
A fixed illumination of the solar cell will provide a fairly
steady dc voltage for driving loads from watches to
automobiles
Conversion efficiencies are currently between 10% and
14%

Voltage Sources
Ampere-hour rating
Batteries have a capacity rating in ampere-hours
A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide
a steady current of 1A for 100 h, 2A for 50 h or 10A for 10 h
Factors affecting the rating: rate of discharge and temperature
The capacity of a dc battery decreases with an increase in the current demand
The capacity of a dc battery decreases at relatively (compared to room
temperature) low and high temperatures

Voltage Sources
Generators
Voltage and power-handling capabilities of the dc
generator are typically higher than those of most
batteries, and its lifetime is determined only by its
construction
Power supplies
The dc supply encountered most frequently in the
laboratory employs the rectification and filtering
processes as its means toward obtaining a steady dc
voltage

Voltage Sources
dc Current sources
The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed current
to an electrical/electronic system, even though there
may be variations in the terminal voltage as
determined by the system

2.8 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors are those materials that permit a generous
flow of electrons with very little external force (voltage)
applied
In addition,

Good conductors typically have only one electron in the

valance (most distant from the nucleus) ring.

Conductors and Insulators

Insulators are those materials that have very few free electrons
and require a large applied potential (voltage) to establish a
measurable current level
Insulators are commonly used as covering for current-carrying
wire, which, if uninsulated, could cause dangerous side effects
Rubber gloves and rubber mats are used to help insulated
workers when working on power lines
Even the best insulator will break down if a sufficiently large
potential is applied across it

Conductors and Insulators

Table 2.1 shows the relative conductivity of various materials

Table 2.2 shows breakdown strength of some common insulators

2.9 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are a specific group of elements that exhibit
characteristics between those of insulators and conductors
Semiconductor materials typically have four electrons in the
outermost valence ring
Semiconductors are further characterized as being
photoconductive and having a negative temperature coefficient
Photoconductivity: Photons from incident light can increase the carrier
density in the material and thereby the charge flow level
Negative temperature coefficient: Resistance will decrease with an
increase in temperature (opposite to that of most conductors)

2.10 Ammeters and Voltmeters

Ammeter (Milliammeter or Microammeter)
Used to measure current levels
Must be placed in the network such that the charge
will flow through the meter

Voltmeter
Used to measure the potential difference between
two points

Ammeters and Voltmeters

Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) and digital multimeter (DMM)
Both instruments will measure voltage and current and a
third quantity, resistance
The VOM uses an analog scale, which requires interpreting
the position of the pointer on a continuous scale
The DMM provides a display of numbers with decimal point
accuracy determined by the chosen scale.

2.11 Applications
Flashlight
Simplest of electrical circuits
Batteries are connected in series to provide a higher
voltage (sum of the battery voltages)

Applications
12-V Car battery charger
Used to convert 120-V ac outlet power to dc charging
power for a 12-V automotive battery, using a transformer
to step down the voltage, diodes to rectify the ac (convert
it to dc), and in some cases a regulator to provide a dc
voltage that varies with level of charge.

Applications
Answering machines/Phones dc supply
A wide variety of devices receive their dc operating
voltage from an ac/dc conversion system
The conversion system uses a transformer to step
the voltage down to the appropriate level, then diodes
rectify the ac to dc, and capacitors provide filtering
to smooth out the dc.