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PL/SQL Execution Environments The PL/SQL Engine

PL/SQL BLOCK
DECLARE
Procedural
Procedural
BEGIN
Procedural
SQL
Procedural
SQL
END;

PL/SQL BLOCK
DECLARE
Procedural
Procedural
BEGIN
Procedural
SQL
Procedural
SQL
END;

PROCEDURAL
STATEMENT
EXECUTOR

To the statement Executors in the ORACLE RDBMS

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PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE

DECLARE

BEGIN

EXCEPTION

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PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE

Declaration Section
Executable Section
Exception Handler Section
Quick Note

- Block structuring

1. Any block may contain sub-block.Sub-blocks may

appear anywhere an executable statement may legally
appear.
2.Statement end with a;
3.comments are preceded by -- or surrounded by /* */
Declared objects exist within a certain scope (addressed
later in this course).
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Qwest

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Variable Declarations Overview

Syntax of Declaration
identifier [constant ] datatype
[not null ] [:= plsql_expression ] ;
Quick Notes- variable Declaration
1. The rules for identifiers are same as for SQL objects.
2. NOT NULL may be used to constrain a variable so that
it cannot have NULL value
3. Only one identifier per line is allowed . For ex.
DECLARE
fristname lastname CHAR(20) ; - illegal
DECLARE
fristname CHAR(20) ; -legal
lastname CHAR(20) ; - legal
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Qwest
Variable Declaration over
NUMBER
Count
revenue
second_per_day
running _total

NUMBER;
NUMBER (9,2);
CONSTANT NUMBER := 60 * 60* 24 ;
NUMBER (10,0)
;= 0;

CHAR/VARCHAR-varchar is more effective

mid_initial
last_name
company_name
*
DATE

CHAR;
CHAR(10) NOT NULL := PEEBLES;
CONSTANT CHAR(12) := ORACLE;

anniversary
DATE ;= 05-NOV-78;
project_complexion DATE;
next_checkup
DATE NOT NULL ;= 28-JUN-90;
BOOLEAN
over_budget
available

BOOLEAN NOT NULL := FALSE;

BOOLEAN := NULL ;

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Qwest
Attribute Declaration
PL/SQL objects (such as variables and constants) and
database objects(such as col. and tables )are associated with
certain attributes.
%TYPE attribute
Ex. DECLARE
books_printed
NUMBER (6);
books_sold
books_printed%TYPE ;
maiden_name
emp.ename%TYPE ;

Ex.

%ROWTYPE attribute
DECLARE
dept_row

dept%ROWTYPE ;

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Qwest
Variable Assignment
PL/SQL Expressions consist of Variables, Constants,
Literals, and Function Calls.
Operation
ASSIGNMENT Syntax
plsql_variable := plsql_expression;
Quick notes -Assignment
1. := (ASSIGNMENT )= (VALUE EQUALITY)
2. The datatype of the left and right hand side of an assignment
must be the same or implicitly convertible to each other.
For ex. , N:=7 is legal because number may be implicitly
converted to char.

3.Column or table reference are not allowed or either side of an

either side of an assignment operator( : = ).
SCOTT.EMP.EMPNO := 1234;
location := dept.loc.;

These are illegal

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Qwest
Scoping Variables and Constants.
SCOPE refers to he visibility of identifiers at
different points in the PL /SQL block.
SCOPING RULES:
1. An identifier is visible in the block in which it is
declared and all its sub-blocks unless rule #2 applies.
2. If an identifier in an enclosing block is redeclared
in a sub-block, the original identifier declared in the
enclosing block is no longer visible in the subblock .However, the newly declared identifier has the
rules of scope defined in rule #1.

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Qwest
Scoping Variables and Constants.
DECLARE
credit_limit CONSTANT NUMBER (6,2) : =2000;
account
NUMBER;
BEGIN
DECLARE
account
CHAR(10);
new_balance NUMBER (9,2);
BEGIN
new_balance
account
credit_limit
END;
DECLARE
account
CHAR(10);
new_balance NUMBER (9,2);
BEGIN
new_balance
account
credit_limit
END;
account
credit_limit
END;
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Qwest

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Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
SQL Data Manipulation Language statement support
1. INSERT
2. UPDATE
3. DELETE
4. SELECT
QuickNotes - SQL DML Support
1. The full ORACLE syntax is supported for these statements
2. A PL/SQL variable may be placed anywhere a constant may
be legally placed.
3. An identifier is first checked to see if it is a column in the
database . If not , it is assumed to be a PL/SQL identifier.
4.These statements may not appear as part of an expression.
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Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
INSERT
DECLARE
my_sal NUMBER(7,2) := 3040.22;
my_ename CHAR(25) := WANDA;
my_hiredate DATE := 08-SEP-01;
BEGIN
INSERT INTO emp (empno,ename,job,hiredate,sal ,deptno)
VALUES (2345,my_ename,cab Driver,my_hiredate,my_sal,20);
END;

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER

SAL
1500

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER
7400

ALLEN

INSERT 7400 ALLEN 1600

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SAL
1500
1600

Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
UPDATE
DECLARE
max_allowed CONSTANT N UMBER := 5000;
good_cust
CHAR(8) := VIP;
BEGIN
UPDATE ACCOUNT SET CREDIT_LIMIT = MAX_ALLOWED WHERE
TYPE = EMPOLEE OR TYPE =good_cust ;
END;
EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER
7400

ALLEN

SAL
1500
1600

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER
7400

ALLEN

UPDATE
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SAL
1500
1400

Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
DELETE
DECLARE
bad_child_type
BEGIN

CHAR(8) := NAUGHTY;

DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename =albert ;

END;

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER
7400

ALLEN

SAL
1500

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER

1600

DELETE
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SAL
1500

Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
APPLICATION

EMPNO ENAME
7644
TURNER
7400

VAR1

ALLEN

SAL
1500
1600

VAR2
VAR3

QuickNotes - SELECT INTO

1 A SELECT statement is the only DML that returns data .You must
provide location for this data to be stored via the INTO clause.
2. A SELECT..INTO statement must return exactly one row .Zero or
multiple returned rows result in an error.
3. For multi-row SELECTs use cursors (discussed later).
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Qwest
SQL & PL/SQL Overview
SELECT Syntax
SELECT col1,col2INTO var1,var2.. FROM table_name WHERE ...

SELECT Ex.
DECLARE
part_name

parts.name%TYPE;

num_in_stock

parts.num%TYPE;

BEGIN
SELECT name, num INTO part_name, num_in_stock FROM PARTS
WHERE part_id = 234;
----manipulate the retrieved data here
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Qwest
SQL Functions
SQL Functional support(within a SQL Statement):
1. Numeric (e.g. SQRT,ROUND,POWER)
2. Character (e.g. LENGTH,UPPER)
3. Date (e.g. ADD_MONTHS,MONTH_BETWEEN);
4. Group(e.g. AVG,MAX,COUNT)
INSERT INTO phonebook (lastname) VALUES (UPPER(my_lastname));
OTHER SQL Functional support (outside of a SQL Statement):

1.MOST ORACLE SQL functional are available (except for

group functions).
X := SQRT(y);
lastname := UPPER (lastname);
age_diff := MONTHS_BETWEEN(birthday1,birthday2)/12;
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Qwest

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Qwest
Logical Comparisons
Logical Comparisons form the basis of conditional control in
PL/SQL; the result of these comparisons are always either
TRUE ,FALSE or NULL.
1. Anything compared with NULL results in a NULL
value.
2. A NULL in an expression evaluates to NULL (except
concatenation)
Ex.
5 + NULL -evaluate to NULL PL/ || NULL ||
SQL evaluate to PL/SQL
PL /SQL Datatypes
NUMBER
CHAR
DATE
BOOLEAN

Operators
<,>
=, !=
<=, >=

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Qwest
Logical Comparisons
Boolean Operators: AND ,OR,NOT
AND
TRUE
FALSE
NULL

TRUE

FALSE NULL

N
NOT
TRUE
FALSE
NULL

OR
TRUE
FALSE
NULL

TRUE

FALSE NULL

F
T
N

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Qwest
If Statements
If statements are used to conditionally execute the
statement or sequence of statements.
IF Statements syntax
IF <condition> THEN <sequence of statement >
[ELSEIF <condition> THEN <sequence of statement > ]
---ELSEIFs may be repeated
[ELSE <sequence of statements>]
END IF;
QuickNotes -- IF Statements

1. <condition> must evaluate to a Boolean datatype (I.e.

TRUE ,FALSE,or NULL)
2. If <condition is TRUE ,then the associated <sequence of
statement is executed ;otherwise, it is not.
3. At most one <sequence of statement > gets executed.
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Qwest
If Statements
Ex.
DECLARE
num_cnt NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO num_cnt FROM emp
WHERE deptno=&&deptno AND job =CLERK;
IF num_jobs> 5 THEN
UPDATE emp SET sal = 2000 WHERE deptno=&&deptno
AND job =CLERK;

ELSE IF num_jobs>2 THEN

UPDATE emp SET sal = 3000 WHERE
deptno=&&deptno AND job =CLERK;

ELSE

UPDATE emp SET sal = 1000 WHERE

deptno=&&deptno AND job =CLERK;

END IF;
COMMIT;
dbms_output.put_line(emp_cnt ||'employees are present');
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The NULL Trap

Qwest
If Statements

BLOCK 1

BLOCK 2

IF a >= b THEN
do this ..;
ELSE
do_this.;
END IF;

IF b > a THEN
do that ..;
ELSE
do_this.;
END IF;

Given any pair of non-NULL values for a andb,

will Block 1 and Block 2 do the same thing?
What if either a orb (or both) is NULL ?
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Qwest
Loop Statement Overview
Loops repeat a statement or sequence of
statements multiple times.
Four types of loop:
1. Simple Loops.
2. Numeric For Loops.
3. While Loops.
4. Cursor FOR Loops.

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Qwest
Loop Statements
Simple Loops repeat sequence of statements multiple times.
Simple Loop syntax
Loop
<sequence of statement>
END LOOP ;---sometimes called an infinite loop

Exit statements exit any type of loop immediately.

Exit Syntax
EXIT [WHEN <condition >]; -- infinite loop insurance

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Qwest
Loop Statements Example
DECLARE
ctr NUMBER(4) := 0;
BEGIN
LOOP
INSERT INTO LOG VALUES (ctr,ITERATION COMPLETE);
ctr := ctr +1;
IF ctr = 1500 THEN EXIT;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END;
DECLARE
ctr NUMBER(3) := 0;
BEGIN
LOOP
UPDATE TABLE 1 SET COMMIT = UPDATES WHERE COUNT_COL = ctr;;
ctr := ctr +1;
IF ctr = 1500 THEN EXIT;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END;
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Qwest
Loop Statements
Numeric FOR Loops repeat sequence of statements fixed
number of times.
Numeric FOR Loop Syntax
FOR <index> IN [REVERSE ] <integer>..<integer> LOOP
<sequence of statements>

The Loop Index takes on each value in range , one of a time ,

either in forward or reverse order.
Example.
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..500 LOOP
INSERT INTO temp(message)VALUES (I will not sleep in class.);
END LOOP;
END;
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Qwest
Loop Statement
QuickNotes - Index :
1. It is implicitly of type NUMBER.
2. It is only defined within the loop .
3. Value may be referenced in an expression,but a new value
may not be assigned to it within the loop
Example
DECLARE
my_index CHAR(20) := Fettuccini Alfredo;
BEGIN
FOR my index IN REVERSE 2130 LOOP /* redeclare s my_index*/
INSERT INTO temp(coll.)VALUES (my_index); /* insert the numbers 30
through 21*/
END LOOP;
END;

FOR

i I N 1256 LOOP
x := x + i ;----legal
i := I + 5;----illegal
END LOOP;
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Qwest
Loop Statements
WHILE Loops repeat a sequence of statements until a specific condition is no
longer TRUE.
While Loop Syntax
WHILE <condition > LOOP <sequence of statements >
END LOOP;
QuickNotes - WHILE Loops
1. The term <condition> may be any legal PL/SQL condition (I.e. it must
return a Boolean value of TRUE,FALSE,or NULL).
2. The sequence of statements will be repeated as long as <condition>
evaluates to TRUE.
Ex. DECLARE
ctr
NUMBER (3) :=
0;
BEGIN
WHILE ctr < 500 LOOP
INSERT INTO temp (message) VALUES (Well,I might sleep just a little);
ctr := ctr +1 ;
END LOOP;
END;
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Qwest
GO TO Statement Overview
GO TO Statements jump to a different place in the
PL/SQL block.
GO TO Statements have parts
1. The GOTO statement itself.
2. A statement label
GO TO Statement Syntax
<<label_name >> X :=X+1 ; - - statement label
GOTO LABEL_NAME

- - JUMPS TO x := x +1

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Qwest
GO TO Statements
NOT ALL GOTOs are Legal !
You can legally a GOTO a statement that is either:
1.in the same sequence of statements as the GOTO STATEMENT
2. In the sequence of statements that encloses the GOTO statement (I.e. an
outer block)
<<dinner>>
x := x + 1 ;
y := y + 1;
IF a >= b THEN

GOTO tour_brothers;
IF a > b THEN
b := b - a;
<<your_brothers>>

b : = b + c;

x := x - 1;

GOTO dinner;

END IF;

END IF;
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Other Uses for Statement Labels

Labels may label any statement.
In addition to their use as targets for GOTO statements, labels may be used for :
1. Blocks
2. Loops
Labeling a block allows referencing of DECLARED objects that would
otherwise not be visible because of Scoping rules.
Syntax
<< label_name>>
[ DECLARE
-- declarations go here ]
BEGIN
-- executable statements go here
[ EXCEPTION
-- exception handlers go here ]
END label_name ; -- must include the label_name
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Other Uses for Statement Labels

Example
<< outer_block >>
DECLARE
n
NUMBER;
BEGIN
n := 5;
/* start a sub_block */
DECLARE
x NUMBER := 10;
n CHAR (10) := Fifteen;
BEGIN
INSERT INTO TEMP VALUES (outer_block.n ,x ,n );
COMMIT;
END ; /* end of the sub_block */
END
outer_block;
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Other Uses for Statement Labels

Labeling LOOPS allows you to reference objects that would otherwise not
be visible because of scoping rules.
EXAMPLE
<< compute_loop >>
For i IN 110 LOOP
< statements . >
DECLARE
i NUMBER := 0 ;
BEGIN
INSERT INTO temp VALUES
(i, compute_loop.I, COMPLETE );
END;
END LOOP compute_loop; - must include loop name here
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Other Uses for Statement Labels

Labeling EXITs is a convenient way to specify exits from
outer loops.
EXAMPLE
<< outer_loop >> WHILE

a>b

LOOP

b := b + 1;
<<inner_loop >> WHILE

b>c

LOOP

c := c + 2 ;
EXIT outer_loop WHEN

c > 200 ;

END LOOP inner_loop;

END LOOP outer_loop;

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Qwest

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Cursor Overview
Every SQL DML statement processed by PL/SQL has an associated
CURSOR.
Two Types of CORSORS
1. EXPLICIT
. Multiple row SELECT STATEMENTS
2. IMPLICIT
All INSERT statements
All UPDATE statements
All DELETE statements
Single row SELECT.INTO Statements

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Using explicit cursors

STEP 1 . Declare the cursor
DECLARE
CURSOR <cursor name>
IS <regular select statement> ;

QuickNotes - CURSOR Declaration

1. The < regular select statement > must NOT include the INTO
clause required in a single-row SELECT.INTO statement.
2. Declared cursors are scoped just like variables.

Cursor Declaration Example

DECLARE
X
NUMBER ( 7, 2 ) ;
total
NUMBER ( 5 )
lower_sal_limit
CONSTANT NUMBER ( 4 ) := 1200 ;
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE sal > lower_sal_limit ;
BEGIN ...
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Using Explicit Cursors

STEP 2 . Open the cursor
OPEN < cursor name > ;
STEP 3 . Fetch data from the cursor
FETCH < cursor name > INTO < var1 ,var2 >> > ;
Quick Notes - FETCH
1. Retrieves one row of data from the cursor , and stores it in the
specified variables ( similar to how a single-row select works ) .
2. There must be exactly one INTO variable for each column selected
by the SELECT statement .
3.

The first column gets assigned to var1 , the second to var2 , etc .
STEP 4 . Close the cursor

CLOSE < cursor name > ;

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Explicit Cursors Attributes

%NOTFOUND
%NOTFOUND Example
LOOP
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename , my_sal ;
EXIT WHEN my_cursor%NOTFOUND ;
-- process data here
END LOOP ;
%FOUND
%FOUND Example
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename ,my_sal ;
WHILE my_cursor INTO my_ename , my_sal ;
-- process data here
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename ,my_sal ;
END LOOP ;
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Explicit Cursor Attributes

%ROWCOUNT
%ROWCOUNT Example
LOOP
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename , my_sal ;
EXIT WHEN ( my_cursor%NOTFOUND )
OR ( my_cursor%ROWCOUNT > 10 ) ;
-- process data here
END LOOP
%ISOPEN
%ISOPEN Example
IF my_cursor%ISOPEN THEN
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename , my_sal ;
ELSE
OPEN my_cursor ;
END IF ;
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Using Explicit Cursors

Example
DECLARE
sal_limit
NUMBER ( 4 ) := 10000 ;
my_ename
emp.ename%TYPE ;
my_sal
emp.sal%TYPE ;
CURSOR my_cursor IS SELECT ename , sal FROM emp WHERE sal > sal_limit ;
BEGIN
sal_limit := 1200 ;
OPEN my_cursor ;
LOOP
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_ename , my_sal ;
EXIT WHEN my_cursor%NOTFOUND ; -nothing
returned
INSERT INTO new_table VALUES ( my_ename , my_sal ) ;
END LOOP ;
CLOSE my_cursor ;
COMMIT ;
END ;
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Qwest
Explicit Cursors -FOR Loops
Cursor FOR Loops specify a sequence of statement to be repeated once for
each row that is returned by the cursor.
Cursor FOR Loop Syntax
FOR <record _name> IN <cursor_name> LOOP
---statements to be repeated go here
END LOOP;
Numeric FOR Loop Similarities
1. Specify a set of rows from a table by using the cursors name vs.
specifying a set of integers (i.e. 110)
2. Index takes on the values of each row vs. index taking on integer
values (I.e. 1 through 10)
Implicitly Declared <record_name>
record_name cursor _name%ROWTYPE;
To reference an element of the record, use the record_name.column_name
notation.
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Qwest
Explicit Cursors -FOR Loops
Conceptual Cursor Loop Model

Loops

Loops

Loops

When a cursor loop is initiated, an implicit

OPEN cursor_name is executed.
For each row that satisfies the query associated
with the cursor an, implicit FETCH is executed
into the components of record_name.

When there are no more rows left to FETCH,

an implicit CLOSE cursor_name is executed
and the loop is exited.

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Explicit Cursors - FOR Loops

Example
DECLARE
sal_limit
NUMBER ( 4 ) := 0 ;
total_sal
NUMBER (9,2 ) := 0;
CURSOR my_cursor IS SELECT ename , sal FROM emp
WHERE sa l > sal_limit ;
BEGIN
sal_limit := 1200 ;
-- implicitly OPEN done next
FOR cursor_row IN my_cursor LOOP
-- an implicit fetch done here
INSERT INTO new_table VALUES (cursor_row.ename ,cursor.sal ) ;
total_sal := total_sal + cursor_row.sal
END LOOP ; --an implicit close done here.
COMMIT ;
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Qwest
Implicit Cursors - FOR Loops
An Implicit Cursor is automatically associated with any SQL DML
statement that does not have an explicit cursor associated with it.
This includes :
1. ALL INSERT statements
2. ALL UPDATE statements
3. ALL DELETE statements
4. ALL SELECTINTO statements
QuickNotes - Implicit Cursors
1. Implicit cursor is called the SQL cursor --it stores
information concerning the processing of the last SQL
statement not associated with an explicit cursor.
2.OPEN, FETCH, AND CLOSE dont apply.
3. All cursor
attributes apply.
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Qwest
Implicit Cursors
SQL %NOTFOUND
SQL %NOTFOUND Example
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 10.0
WHERE ename =WARD ;
IF SQL %NOTFOUND THEN
---WARD wasnt found
INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename ,sal)
VALUES ( 1234,WARD 99999 );
END IF ;
SQL %FOUND

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Qwest
Implicit Cursors
SQL%ROWCOUNT
SQL%ROWCOUNT Example
DELETE FROM baseball_team
WHERE batting _avg. < .100;
IF SQL%ROWCOUNT > 5 THEN
INSERT INTO temp(message)
VALUES(Your team needs helps .);
END IF;
SQL %ISOPEN always evaluate to FALSE.

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Qwest

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Exception Overview
In PL/SQL error are called exceptions.
When an exception is raised, processing jumps to the
exception handlers.
An exception handler is a sequence of statements to be
processed when a certain exception occurs.
When an exception handler is complete processing of the
block terminates.

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Exception Overview
Two Types of Exceptions
1. PREDEFINED INTERNAL EXCEPTIONS
2. USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS
PL/SQLs Exception Handlers
vs.
Conventional Error Handling

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Predefined Internal Exceptions

Any ORACLE error raises an exception automatically ; some
of the more common ones have names.

Example

TOO_MANY_ROWS
ORA-(01427)
- a single row SELECT returned more than one row
NO_DATA_FOUND
ORA-(01403)
- a single row SELECT returned no data
INVALID_CURSOR
ORA-(01001)
- invalid cursor was specified
VALUES_ERROR
ORA-(06502)
- arithmetic ,numeric, string , conversion,or constraint error occurred.
ZERO_DIVIDE
ORA-(01476)
- attempted to divide by zero
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
ORA-(00001)
- attempted to insert a duplicate value into a column that has a unique index
specified.
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Exception Handlers
Syntax
WHEN <exception_name [OR <exception_name] then <sequence of statements>
OR
WHEN OTHERS THEN -- if used , must be last handler < sequence of statements>
Example
DECLARE
employee_num emp.empno%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT empno INTO employee_num FROM emp
WHERE ename = BLAKE;
INSERT INTO temp VALUES(NULL, empno,Blake's employee_num);
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename =BLAKE;
EXCEPTION
WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS OR NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
ROLLBACL;
INSERT INTO temp VALUES (NULL,NULL,Blake not found, or more than one Blake);
COMMIT;
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK;
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END;
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User - Defined Exceptions

User - defined Exceptions must be defined and explicitly raised by the
user.
EX.
DECLARE
x
NUMBER;
my_exception E XCEPTION; -- a new object type..
Raise your_exception;
RAISE my_exception;
Quick Notes -RAISE <exception_name>
1. Once an exception is RAISED manually, it is treated exactly the
same as if it were a predefined internal exception.
2. Declared exceptions are scoped just like variables.
3. A user-defined exception is checked for manually and then RAISED ,
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User - Defined Exceptions

Example
DECLARE
my_ename emp.ename%TYPE :=BLAKE;
assigned_projects NUMBER;
too_few_projects EXCEPTION
BEGIN
---- get no of projects assigned to BLAKE
IF assigned_project < 3 THEN
RAISE too_few_projects;
END IF;
EXCEPTION --begin the exception handlers
WHEN too_few_projects THEN
INSERT INTO temp
VALUES(my_ename,assigned_projects,LESS THAN 3 PROJECTS!)
COMMIT;
END;
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Exceptions Propagation
Propagation
Step #1 The current block is searched for a handler .If not found, go to step 2.
Step#2

If an enclosing block is found, it is searched for it handler.

Step#3 Step #1 and#2 are repeated until either there are no more enclosing
blocks, or a handler is found .
- If there are no more enclosing blocks, the exception is passed back to the
calling environment (SQL *Plus,SQL *Forms, a precompiled program,etc.)
- If the handler is found ,it is executed .when done the block in which the
handler was found is terminated, and control is passed to thee enclosing block (if
one exists), or to environment (if there is enclosing block)
Quick notes
1. Only one handler per block may be active at a time.
2. If an exception is raised in a handler, the search for a handler for the new
exception begins in the enclosing block of the current block.
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Exceptions Propagation
Example 1
BEGIN
BEGIN
IF X=1 THEN RAISE A:
ELSEIF X=2 THEN RAISE B;
ELSE RAISE C;
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN

Exception A is handled
locally and execution
resumes in the outer
block

END;

WHEN B THEN

END;
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Exceptions Propagation
Example 2
BEGIN
BEGIN
IF X=1 THEN RAISE A:
ELSEIF X=2 THEN RAISE B;
ELSE RAISE C;
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN
...

Exception B
PROPAGATES to the
first outer block with an
appropriate handler

END;
WHEN B THEN

Exception B handled and

control is passed back to
the calling environment

END;
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Exceptions Propagation
Example 3
BEGIN
BEGIN
IF X=1 THEN RAISE A:
ELSEIF X=2 THEN RAISE B;
ELSE RAISE C;
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN
..
END;

WHEN B THEN
..

END;

Exception C has no
handler and will result
in runtime unhandled
exception

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Other uses of RAISE

By itself ,the RAISE statement simply re-raise the
current exception (as if it were being propagated).
Syntax
RAISE ;
Quick Notes -RAISE
1. RAISE may only be used in an exception handler

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EXCEPTION_INIT
Exceptions may only be handled by name (not ORACLE error
number).
EXCEPTION_INIT allows naming of nay ORACLE error.
SYNTAX
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(<user defined exception_name > ,
<ORACLE_error_number>);
Example
DECLARE
deadlock_detected

exception;

PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (deadlock_detected, -60);

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Error Reporting Functions

SQLCODE and SQLERRM
1 . Provided information on the exception currently being handled.
2. Especially useful in the OTHERS handler.
SQLCODE
1. Returns the ORACLE error number of the exceptio0n or 1 if it
was user-defined exception .
SQLERRM
1 .Return the ORACLE error message currently associated with
the current value of SQLCODE
2. May also use any ORACLE error number as an argument.
QuickNotes - Error Reporting
1. If no exception is active
SQLCODE = 0
SQLERRM = normal , successful completion
2. SQLCODE and SQLERRM cannot be used within a SQL statement.
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Error Reporting Functions

Ex.
DECLARE
sqlcode_val

NUMBER;

sqlcode_val

CHAR(70);

BEGIN
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
sqlcode _val := SQLCODE - - - cant insert
- - - directly.
sqlerrm_val := SQLERRM ; - - ditto
INSERT INTO temp VALUES(sqlcode_val, NULL,sqlerrm_val);
END;
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Qwest

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Stored procedures and

Functions
Collections of SQL and PL/SQL statements.
Stored in complied from in the database.
Can call others and self.
Can be called from all client environments
Procedures and function (including remote) are the same,
except a function returns a values and a procedure does not.

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Uses for procedures

Define central well-known business functions.
- Create an order
- Delete a customer
Store batch job in the database
-Weekly account rollups
Encapsulate a transaction
- Gather and process information from remote nodes
Funnel activity on a table through a single path
- all changes to employee salaries should change department
budgets.
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Creating a procedure
Argument Modes
IN

Data value comes in from the calling

process and is not changed

OUT

No data value comes in from the calling

process; on normal exit ,value of argument
is passed back to caller

IN OUT

Data value comes in from the calling

process, and another value is returned on
normal exit

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Creating a procedure
Example
CREATE PROCEDURE
fire_employee (empid NUMBER)
AS
BEGIN

DELETE
FROM emp
WHERE empno=
fire_employee.empid;
END

Tip:Write each procedure in a text file, and save(both P-code and source
code is saved in the database)

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Creating and changing a function

Example
CREATE FUNCTION
get_bal (acc_no NUMBER(4))
RETURN

NUMBER(11,2);

IS
acc_bal NUMBER(11,2);
BEGIN
SELECT balance
INTO acc_bal
FROM accounts
WHERE account_id_no=acc_no;
RETURN (acc_bal);
END;

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Statements in procedures
Valid statements in a procedure or function
SQL DML or PL/SQL statements
Calls to other procedures and functions stored in the database
Calls to other procedures and functions in a remote database
Restricted statements
DDL
Dynamic SQL
In trigger, COMMIT,SAVEPOINT, and ROLLBACK

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Executing a stored procedure

From within a PL/SQL block
fire_employee (empno);
scott.fire_employee (empno);
On a remote node
scott.fire_employee@ny (empno);
From SQL*DBA and some ORACLE tools
EXECUTE fire_employee (1043)
Within an anonymous block (when EXECUTE not available)
SQLPLUS>BEGIN
FIRE_EMPLOYEE(1043);END;
From a precompiler application
EXEC SQL

fire_employee (:empno);
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Executing a stored procedure

From OCI

CALL OSQL3 (cursor, /*parse*/

BEGIN
scott.fire_employee(:empno);
END;);
CALL OBNDRV (..); /*bind vars*/
CALL OEXEC (..);

/*EXECUTE*/

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Specifying procedure arguments

Example
CREATE PROCEDURE update_sal
(empno
bonus
sal_incr

NUMBER,
NUMBER,
NUMBER) .;

Positional method
List values in the order they are declared
update_sal (7000,20,500);

Named method
List argument names and values in any order, using special syntax
update_sal
(bonus=>20,
sal_incr=>500,
empno=>7000);
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Specifying procedure arguments

Combination method
Use both positional and named methods
Once you specify a named parameter, must use named method for
all remaining
update_sal

Legal

(7000,sal_incr=>500,bonus=>20);
update_sal

Illegal

(empno=>7000,
sal_incr=>500,20);

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How procedures are entered into the database

PL/SQL engine compiles the source code
ORACLE stores a procedure in a database:
Object name
Source code
Parse tree
Pseudo code(P-code)
Syntax errors in dictionary table
Dependency information
SQL in procedure not stored in parsed form
Uses shared and cached SQL
Allows SQL to be optimized dynamically (without
recompiling referencing procedures)

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PL/SQL Compilation Errors

Compile done by PL/SQL engine in RDBMS
Error stored in the database
To view errors:
Use SQL*DBA command SHOW ERRORS
Select from errors views
USER_ERRORS
ALL_ERRORS
DBA_ERRORS

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PL/SQL Compilation Errors Executing SHOW

ERRORS
SQLDBA>create procedure test1 is begin test2;end;
DBA-00072: Warning: PROCEDURE TEST1
created with compilation errors.
SQLDBA>show errors
ERRORS FOR PROCEDURE TEST1:
LINE/COL ERROR
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1/0

PL/SQL: Compilation unit

analysis terminated
1/33

PL/SQL-00219:test2 is not defined

2 rows selected
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PL/SQL Compilation Errors

Fields in ERRORS views
NAME:name of the object
TYPE: one of the following:
PROCEDURE
FUNCTION
PACKAGE
PACKAGE BODY
LINE:line number where error occurs
TEXT:text of error

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USER-DEFINED System Errors

Any procedure can raise an error and return a user defined error message
and error number
Error number range is -20000 to -20999
Range always reserved for user defined errors
Oracle does not check if user defined error numbers are used uniquely
Raise error within PL/SQL block with procedure
raise application_error
(error_number,text of the message)
Full pathname of procedure may be needed in early releases
sys.standard_utilities.
Raise_application_error

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USER-DEFINED System Errors

Example
CREATE PROCEDURE
fire_employee (empid NUMBER)
AS
BEGIN
IF empid <=0 THEN
raise_application_error (-20100,Employee number must be> 0);
ELSE
DELETE
FROM emp
WHERE EMPNO =EMPID;
END IF;
END;
SQLDBA> EXECUTE FIRE_EMPLOYEE(-1);
ORA=-20100: Employee number must be >0
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Debugging methods
Version 6
User INSERTS information into a user defined table, and
examines data

Version 7
PL/SQL will have methods of I/O to system defined
table(TIO$LINES)
TEXT_IO package
Rolls back or commits with transaction
DEBUG_IO package
Writes despite error, rollback,commit

Can use Version6 method

Future

A PL/SQL debugger

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Dependencies and Procedures

A procedure is dependent on:
every database object to which it refers (direct dependency)
procedures,functions,packages,tables,views,synony
ms,sequences
the database objects those objects depend on(indirect dependency)

Two types of dependencies

local: objects are on the same node
remote: objects are on separate nodes

ORACLE automatically checks dependencies

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Recompilation of Dependent procedures

When an object changes, its dependent objects are marked for
recompilation
Any change to definition of referenced object implies new
version of reference object
Dependent objects must be recompiled if referenced object
changes
Recompilation of dependent objects takes place automatically at
runtime
Reasons recompilation could fail
Changing parameter list in called procedure
Changing definition of or removing referenced column from referenced table
Dropping referenced table

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Recompilation
Procedure/function can be recompiled be either
RDBMS automatically, when next accessed(only if marked for
recompilation)
Manually by the user, using ALTER PROCEDURE command

If recompilation fails, error information is put to error table

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Manual Recompilation

ALTER PROCEDURE

Procedure COMPILE

schema
Example
ALTER PROCEDURE
add_department COMPILE
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Changing a procedure
To modify a procedure, replace it:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE
fire_employee AS . . . END;

OR REPLACE option:
Recreates the procedure even if it already exists
Retains existing grants (need not reissue)
Creates procedure even if there are syntax errors
Marks dependent objects for recompilation
Users executing old procedure finish that call: next invocation gets
new procedure
Facilitates development (one step)

CREATE without OR REPLACE on existing procedure fails

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Dropping a procedure

DROP PROCEDURE

Procedure

schema
Example
DROP PROCEDURE fire_employee;

Marks dependent objects for recompilation

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Privileges for procedures

Example
GRANT EXECUTE
ON scott.hire_fire
TO mkennedy
WITH GRANT OPTION;

Procedure executes under the authority of owner, not user executing

procedure
User of procedure need not have access to objects inside procedure
Can only GRANT privileges on an entire package, not a procedure,
function,or variable defined in the package

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Privileges for procedures

PROCEDURE system privileges apply to procedures,
functions, and packages
To do this

Need either

And

CREATE

CREATE
PROCEDURE or
CRETAE ANY
PROCEDURE
system privilege

Owner must have

access to all objects
referenced in the
procedure

ALTER

Own the procedure

or ALTER ANY
PROCEDURE
system privilege

DROP

Own the procedure

or DROP ANY
PROCEDURE
system privilege

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Privileges for procedures

To do this

Need either

Execute a
Own the procedure
procedure or access or be granted
a package construct EXECUTE
PRIVILEGE or
EXECUTE ANY
PROCEDURE
system privilege

And
Procedure owner
must be explicitly
granted access to all
database objects in
the procedure(not
through roles)

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Benefits of Procedures
Security
Executes under security domain of procedures owner
Provides controlled indirect access to database objects to nonprivileged users

Integrity
Defines allowed operations on data
Ensures related actions are performed together

Performance
Reduces number of calls to thedatabase
Decreases network traffic
Pre-parses PL/SQL statements

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Benefits of Procedures
Memory savings
Takes advantages of shared SQL
Requires only one copy of the code for multiple users

Productivity
Avoids redundant code for common procedures in multiple applications
Reduces coding errors: no redundant code written

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Benefits of Procedures
Maintainability
Enables system wide changes with one update
Makes testing easier: duplicate testing not needed
Dependency tracked by ORACLE

High availability
Allows changing procedured on-line while users execute
previous version

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Package
A database object that groups related package constructs
Procedures
functions
cursor definitions
variables and constants
exception definitions

Package variables and cursors have persistent state

Variables retain values and cursors retain contexts and positions
for the duration of a user session
State persists across a users calls in one session (not multiple
sessions or users)

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Parts of a package
Package specification
Declares (specifies) package constructs, including names and parameters
publicly available procedures and functions

Package body
May declare additional, private package constructs that are not publicly
available
Defines all package constructs (public and private)
May be replaced without affecting package specification (Breaks
dependency chain)
Each session has own version of state

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Public and Private Package Constructs

Public package constructs
Declared in the package specification
Available to anyone who can run the package

Private package constructs

Only declared in the package body
Available to other package constructs within the package body
Allows hiding procedures from programmers referencing the public
constructs

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Public and Private Package Constructs

Public
declarations

Definition of
public constructs

PACKAGE hire_fire IS
PROCEDURE hire_employee (. .);
PROCEDURE fire_employee (. .);
valid CHAR(1);
END;
PACKAGE BODY hire_fire IS
PROCEDURE hire_employee (. .);
IS
BEGIN. . . END;
PROCEDURE fire_employee ( . .)
IS
BEGIN . . . END;

Definition of
private
function

FUNCTION check_num (. . )
RETURN. .
IS
BEGIN . . END;
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Public and Private Package Constructs

Package PK
Variable C

Package
specification

Procedure A
x :=pk.c;

Variable D
Package
Procedure B

body

y :=d;
z :=c;

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Uses of Packages
Group related constructs
Declare globally accessible variables
Declare variables with persistent state
Organize development activity
Define modules, collections of procedures known to on team
Minimize name conflicts within a schema
Personnel.audit inventory.audit
Simplify security
GRANT EXECUTE on entire package
limit recompilation
Change body of procedure or function without changing specification
Limit indirect dependencies

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Creating a Package Specification

Example
/* Package specification declaring procedures and variables for
hiring and firing employees */
CERATE PACKEAGE hire_fire
AS
/*Declare procedures */
PROCEDURE hire_employee
(empno NUMBER, ename CHAR,
mgr
NUMBER, sal
NUMBER,
comm
NUMBER, deptno NUMBER);
PROCEDURE fire_employee (empid NUMBER);
/*Global variable declaration*/
valid CHAR(1);
END hire_fire;
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Creating a package body

Example
/*package body containing procedures to hire and ire employee */
CREATE PACKAGE BODY hire_fire
AS
/*Procedure to hire a employee*/
PROCEDURE hire_employee
(empno NUMBER, ename CHAR,
mgr
NUMBER, sal
NUMBER,
comm NUMBER, deptno NUMBER);
IS
BEGIN
/*VALID is declared in the package definition*/
valid :=check_sum(empno);
/*IF valid empno then add user*/
IF valid =T THEN
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES
(empno,ename,mgr,sal,comm,deptno);
END IF;
END;

(continued)

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Creating a package body

Example(continued)
/* Procedure to fire an employee number */
PROCEDURE fire_employee (empid NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp
WHERE empno =empid;
END;
/*function to check that the employee number>0.Local to the package */
FUNCTION check_sum (empno NUMBER)
RETURN CHAR(1) IS
answer
CHAR(1);
BEGIN
answer :=T;
IF empno <0 THEN
answer := F;
END IF;
RETURN (answer);
END;
END hire_fire; /*End of package*/
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Accessing package constructs

PROCEDURE employee_admin
/* The action to perform and the employee ID have been entered previously*/
IF action =HIRETHEN
scott.hire_fire.hire_employee
( employee,ename,mgr,sal,comm,deptno);
IF scott.hire_fire.valid =T THEN
/*sports_club is another package that handles membership to the company
sports club*/
sports_club.add (employee)
END IF;
ELSIF action =FIRE THEN
scott.hire_fire.fire_employee
(employee);
sports_club.remove (employee);
END IF;
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Dropping a Package

Procedure

schema

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Benefit Of Package
Performance
Reduces disk I/o for subsequent calls
- First call to package loads whole package into
memory
Persistence state
Retain values of package constructs for
an entire session
Security

Access to the package allows access to

public constructs in the package only.
No need to issue GRANT for every
procedure in package.
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Benefit Of Package
Productivity
Stores related procedures and function
together
Easier to manger changing the specification
or definition of a construct.
Reduces cascading dependencies
Dependencies are at package ,not
procedure level
Can change package body with
changing or affecting package
specification
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Qwest

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Ref Cursors
A REF CURSOR is majorly used when we want to
execute a dynamic select statement causes to
retrieve more than one record. We can pass Ref
cursor result as a out parameter which can be
used in other subprograms.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE CURSPKG AS
TYPE T_CURSOR IS REF CURSOR;
PROCEDURE OPEN_ONE_CURSOR (N_EMPNO IN NUMBER,
IO_CURSOR IN OUT T_CURSOR);
PROCEDURE OPEN_TWO_CURSORS(EMPCURSOR OUT T_CURSOR,
DEPTCURSOR OUT T_CURSOR);
END CURSPKG;
/
See Example
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Ref Cursors
A ref cursor refers to server memory. The memory address
represented by a ref cursor "lives" on the database server, not
on the client machine. Therefore, the client's connection to the
database must be in place during the lifetime of the ref cursor.
If the underlying connection to the database is closed, the ref
cursor will become inaccessible to the client.
A ref cursor involves an additional database round trip.
Because a ref cursor is a pointer to memory on the server that
is returned to the client, the actual data contained in the ref
cursor is not initially returned to the client. The client must
request the data contained in the ref cursor after it has opened
the ref cursor. Note that data will not be retrieved until the
user attempts to read it.

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Ref Cursors
A ref cursor is not updatable. The result set represented by the
ref cursor is read-only. You cannot update the database by
using a ref cursor.
A ref cursor is not backward scrollable. The data represented
by the ref cursor is accessed in a forward-only, serial manner.
You cannot position a record pointer inside the ref cursor to
point to random records in the result set.
A ref cursor is a PL/SQL datatype. You create and return a ref
cursor inside a PL/SQL code block.

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Collection
PL/SQL offers these collection types:
Index-by tables or Associative arrays, let you look up
elements using arbitrary numbers and strings for subscript
values. (They are similar to hash tables in other programming
languages.)
type my_tab_t is table of number index by pls_integer;
type my_tab_t is table of number index by varchar2(4000);
declare
TYPE phone_no_tab IS TABLE OF VARCHAR2(20) INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
phone_nos phone_no_tab;
begin
phone_nos(1) := '+44 (0) 117 942 2508';
dbms_output.put_line('phone_no(1) is '||phone_nos(1));
end;

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Collection
COUNT: This function returns the number of elements (cells) in the collection
DELETE: This procedure with no parameters deletes all the elements in the collection, as
with nested tables, though, we can specify a start and end point to say which element(s)
is (are) to be deleted. After deleting an element or the whole collection, any subsequent
attempt to read that element in the collection generates "ORA-01403: no data found".
However you can write to any element without any errors as this re-creates the element
EXISTS(n) : used to determine if the specified element has been created and not deleted,
returns TRUE if the element exists, FALSE if not. The index variable can be either a
number of type BINARY_INTEGER or a character string of type VARCHAR2
FIRST : returns the subscript of the first element in the PLSQL associative array
LAST : returns the subscript of the last element in the PL/SQL associative array
PRIOR(n): returns the subscript of the previous element in the PL/SQL associative array
or NULL if if no more elements exist
NEXT(n) : returns the subscript of the next element in the PLSQL associative array or
NULL if no more elements exist.
See Example

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Collection
PL/SQL offers these collection types:
Nested tables hold an arbitrary number of elements. They
use sequential numbers as subscripts. You can define
equivalent SQL types, allowing nested tables to be stored in
database tables and manipulated through SQL.
Nested table is a table that is stored in database as the data of
a column of the table. Nested
table is like an Index-By table, but the main difference is that
a nested table can be stored in
the database and an Index-by table cannot.
Nested table extends Index-by table by allowing the operations
such as SELECT, DELETE,
UPDATE and INSERT to be performed on nested table.
See example,
create table emp
( empno number(5),
ename varchar2(30),
projects projecttable
)
nested table projects store as projects_nt;

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Collection
PL/SQL offers these collection types:

V arrays (short for variable-size arrays) hold a fixed number of

elements (although you can change the number of elements at
runtime). They use sequential numbers as subscripts. You can define
equivalent SQL types, allowing varrays to be stored in database
tables. They can be stored and retrieved through SQL, but with less
flexibility than nested tables.
Arrays have a fixed upper bound, but nested tables are unbounded
.So, the size of a nested table can increase dynamically.

See example

create type projectlist as VARRAY(5) of project_Type;

create table emp
( empno number(5),
ename varchar2(30),
projects projectlist
);
insert into emp
values(1,'Ellison',
projectlist
(
project_type('Telephone Billing', 'System Analyst'),
project_type('Housing Loans','Oracle DBA')
));
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employees

Qwest

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Ref Cursors
SELECT
extract(xmldata,
'/DocumentElement/Emp_Details/Emp_Cuid').getStringVal()
"CUIDS"
FROM xml

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Ref Cursors
DECLARE
poxml XMLType;
cname varchar2(200);
pono number;
pname varchar2(100);
shipstreet varchar2(100);
shipcity varchar2(30);
shipzip varchar2(20);
BEGIN
-- select the adt instance
SELECT poDoc INTO poxml FROM po_xml_tab p;
cname := poxml.extract('//CUSTOMER/@CUSTNAME').getstringval();
pono := poxml.extract('/PO/PONO/text()').getnumberval();
pname := poxml.extract('/PO/PNAME/text()').getstringval();
shipstreet := poxml.extract('/PO/SHIPADDR/STREET/text()').getstringval();
shipcity := poxml.extract('//CITY/text()').getstringval();
shipzip := poxml.extract('//ZIP/text()').getstringval();
INSERT INTO po_rel_tab
VALUES (pono, pname,
(SELECT custid FROM cust_tab c WHERE custname = cname),
shipstreet, shipcity, shipzip);
END;
/
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Qwest

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Triggers

What a trigger is.

Creating triggers
Restrictions on triggers
Dropping and recompiling
Privileges for creating
Applications
Benefits

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What a Trigger is
Application
UPDATE
UPDATE tt
SET
SET.;
.;
INSERT
INSERT

Database
UPDATE(trigger)
UPDATE(trigger)

Table T
INSERT(trigger)
INSERT(trigger)

INTO
INTO t..;
t..;
DELETE
DELETE
FROM
FROM t;
t;

DELETE(trigger)
DELETE(trigger)

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What a Triggers is
A user-defined PL/SQL block associated with a specific table,
and implicitly fired (executed) when a triggering statement is issued
against the table
Made up of parts
- Triggering event (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)
- Trigger type (BEFORE/AFTER, per statement or per row)
- Trigger restriction (optional)
* WHEN clause
- Trigger action
* PL/SQL BLOCK
Not the same as a SQL * Forms trigger
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Ex. of a Triggers ----- Keeping sal. In range for a job

CREATE TRIGGER scott.salary_check
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OR UPDATE OF sal,job ON scott.emp
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW .job <> PRESIDENT)
DECLARE
minsal

NUMBER;

maxsal NUMBER;
BEGIN

/* get min and max salaries for the employees job from the SAL_GUIDE*/

SELECT minsal,maxsal INTO minsal,maxsal FROM sal_guide

WHERE job = :NEW.job;
/* If salary below min or above max,generate an error*/
IF (:NEW.sal < minsal.OR :NEW.sal > maxsal)
THEN raise_application_error ( -20500,salary || :NEW.sal|| out of range for job||
:NEW.job|| for employee|| :NEW.ENAME);
ENDIF;
END; /* End of Trigger*/

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Triggers and stored procedures

similarities
Made up of PL/SQL and SQL statements
Use shared SQL areas
Cannot be changed (must be dropped and recreated )
Dependencies tracked automatically by ORACLE

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Triggers and stored procedures

Differences
Triggers invoked implicitly ;procedures invoked
explicitly
Triggers and procedures crated with different SQL
statements
No CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER statement
Triggers are associated with tables
COMMIT ,ROLLBACK,SAVEPOINT not allowed in
triggers (nor in procedures called by triggers)
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Triggers vs. SQL * Forms triggers

Database trigger
Fires while statement executes
Fires independently of and in addition to SQL *From
triggers
Fired by SQL statement from any tool or application
Can prevent completion of SQL statement
Fire as each statement is executed
SQL *From trigger
Associated with particular from
Only executes when from is run
Can fire after each field is entered
pre/post INSERT/UPDATE /DELETE triggers execute
when COMMIT key is pressed
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Types of triggers
Type of a trigger determines
The time when the trigger fires
BEFORE trigger:
before the triggering action
AFTER trigger:
after the triggering action
The item the trigger fires on
Row trigger:once for each row affected by the triggering

statement

Statement trigger:once for the triggering statement,regardless of the number

rows affected

Each table have up to 12 triggers in all:

INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)*
BEFORE/AFTER)*
STATE/ROW)
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Types of triggers
How to use each type
BEFORE statement trigger
To initialize global variables used in triggers
To prevent update before it occurs

BEFORE row trigger

To compute derived fields in the new row

To prevent updates before they occur

For auditing
(by value,by row)
AFTER
row trigger
Used by ORACLE snapshot mechanism)

For auditing
AFTER
statement trigger

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Triggers firing sequence

INSERT,UPDATE or DELETE is applied to table statement to execute
Execute BEFORE statement trigger
For each row affected by the SQL statement:
Execute BEFORE row trigger
Change row and perform integrity constraint checking
Execute AFTER row trigger
Execute AFTER statement trigger
Complete deferred integrity constraint checking
Returns to application

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Expressions in triggers
Referring to values in row triggers
To refer to the old and new values of a column in row triggers, use
the:OLD and :NEW prefixes:
IF :NEW.sal< :OLD.sal. . .
Notes:
Values available in row triggers only
New and old both available for UPDATE
The old value in an INSERT is NULL
T he new value in a DELETE is NULL
BEFORE row trigger can assign values to :NEW if it is not set by UPDATE
SET clause or INSERT VALUES list
Can replace: NEW and :old with other correlation names if desired
Colon dropped in when clauses
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Expressions in triggers
conditional predicates
If a trigger can fire on more than one type of DML
operation use pre defined PL/SQL boolean variables to
determine which caused the trigger to fire:
IF INSERTING . . .
IF UPDATING . . .
IF DELETING . . .
To detect which column is being updated:
IF UPDATING (columnname)

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Expressions in triggers

CREATE TRIGGER total_salary

AFTER DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE
OF deptno,sal ON emp
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF(DELETING) OR (UPDATING AND: OLD deptno <> :NEW deptno.)
THEN UPDATE dept
SET total_sal=total_sal -:OLD.sal
WHERE deptno. = :OLD.deptno;
END IF;
IF (INSERT

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Restrictions on triggers
Maximum number of 12 triggers for a table
Up to three(INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)triggers of each type

Prohibited statements in triggers:

ROLLBACK
COMMIT
SAVEPOINT
Note:Also applies to procedures called by triggers(including remote
procedures

Cascading trigger limit

The action of a trigger may cause another trigger to fire and so on (called
cascading triggers)
Limit the depth of cascading with an INIT.ORA parameter
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Restrictions on triggers
Original EMP

Mutating tables

ENAME
ENAME

SAL
SAL

SMITH
SMITH
JONES
JONES

1000
1000
1000
1000

mutating EMP
ENAME
ENAME

SAL
SAL

SMITH
SMITH
JONES
JONES

1100
1100
1000
1000

UPDATE emp
SET sal = sal *1.1;
UPDATE(trigger)
SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE

A table that is being modified by an UPDATE,DELETE, or INSERT in a single

user statement
A trigger cannot SELECT from or change a mutating table(except current row,
using :NEW and :OLD)
Can be handled through Pragma Autonomous Transactions

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Enabling and disabling triggers

Possible states for a trigger
Enabled
Executes its triggered action if both:
an appropriate statement is issued.
trigger WHEN clause evaluates to TRUE(if present).

Disabled
Does not execute its triggered action

Triggers are automatically enabled on creation

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Enabling and disabling triggers

Reasons for disabling the trigger
Have to load a large amount of data, and want to proceed quickly
without firing triggers
Example: SQL *loader using direct path automatically
disables triggers

Want to INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE on a table whose trigger

references a database object that is not available

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Enabling and disabling triggers

With ALTER TRIGGER

ALTER TRIGGER

trigger
schema

ENABLE
DISABLE

Examples
ALTER TRIGGER reorder DISABLE;
ALTER TRIGGER reorder ENABLE;

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Enabling and disabling triggers

With ALTER TABLE

table

ALTER TABLE
schema
ENABLE

trigger

DISABLE

trigger
schema

Examples
ALTER TABLE INVENTORY
DISABLE TRIGGER REORDER;
ALTER TABLE INVENTORY
ENABLE TRIGGER REORDER;
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Dropping Triggers

trigger

DROP TRIGGER
schema

Example
DROP TRIGGER reorder;

Triggers cannot be altered; they must be dropped and recreated

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Recompiling a trigger

trigger

ALTER TRIGGER

COMPILE

schema

Manually recompile to resolve dependencies (same as procedures)

Example
ALTER TRIGGER reorder
COMPILE;

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Applications of triggers
Maintaining derived fields
Implementing complex security rules
Enforcing complex business rules
Performing value-based auditing
Making implied changes
Maintaining table replication

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Examples of using triggers

Deriving column values
Derive column values for a row based upon a value
INSERT or UPDATE statement.

provided by an

Must use BEFORE ROW trigger

Value must be derived first so the INSERT or UPDATE statement can use it.
Trigger must fire for each row affected.

Cannot assign to new values set by triggering INSERT or UPDATE.

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