Earthquakes

They result from the rupture of rocks along a fault.

Energy from an earthquake is released in the form
of seismic waves.
They are mapped according to the epicentre; the
focus is located directly below the epicentre.

Figure 3.2

Earthquakes

Earthquake Magnitude
The magnitude of an earthquake is expressed as a
number to one decimal place.

The Richter Scale was a measure of the strength of

a wave at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre.

The Moment Magnitude Scale

Today, earthquakes are measured using the Moment
Magnitude scale (M).
The scale is determined by:

Similar to the Richter Scale, it is a logarithmic scale.

Example:

Magnitude and Frequency

of Earthquakes
Except for very large earthquakes, the magnitude on
the Moment Magnitude Scale is similar to the Richter
Scale.
The strongest earthquake to
ever occur is M9.5 in Chile
in 1960. In Canada, it is
M8.1 in B.C. in 1949.

Earthquake Intensity
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is a qualitative
scale based on damage to structures and the affect
on people. It is based on 12 categories.

Earthquake Processes
Earthquakes are most common at or near plate
boundaries.

When the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks,

there is a sudden movement along a fault.

Earthquake Processes
The movement (or rupture) starts at the focus and
propagates in all directions, called seismic waves.
Thus, faults are considered seismic sources.

Earthquake Distribution

Figure 3.17

Fault Types
There are two basic types of geologic faults
distinguished by the direction of the displacement
of rock or sediment.
Strike-slip faults

Dip-slip faults

Strike-Slip Faults
The San Andreas Fault is the best example of this
type.

Figure 3.7

Dip-Slip Faults
There are three types:

They are comprised of two walls on an incline

defined by miners:

Dip-Slip Faults

Dip-Slip Faults
Reverse Fault:

Thrust Fault:

Normal Fault:

Dip-Slip Faults

Figure 3.7

Fault Activity
In terms of activity, faults can fall into one of three
categories:
Active

Potentially Active

Inactive

Tectonic Creep
Definition:

It is also referred to as fault creep.

This can damage roads and building foundations
(movement of a few cm per decade).

Seismic Waves
Some seismic waves generated by fault rupture
travel within the body of the Earth and others travel
along the surface.
Body waves:
P waves

Seismic Waves
S waves
They are also called secondary or shear waves.

Figure 3.8

Seismic Waves
P waves

S waves

Surface Waves
Definition:

These waves move more slowly than body waves.

Earthquake Shaking
Factors that determine the shaking people
experience during an earthquake:

Earthquake Shaking
Seismographs record the arrival of waves to a
recording station.

Figure 3.9

Distance to the Epicentre

The difference between the arrival times of the first
P and S waves at different locations determine the
distance to the epicentre.

Locating an
Earthquake
The epicentre is
located where the
circles intersect; this
process is called
triangulation.

Figure 3.10

Focal Depth
Seismic waves become less intense as they spread
outward toward the surface.
Therefore, the greater the focal depth, the less
intense the shaking at the surface.

Direction of Rupture
Earthquake energy is focused in the direction of
rupture.
This is known as directivity and contributes to
increased shaking.

Local Soil and Rock Types

The local geology influences the amount of ground
motion.

Seismic energy slows down in areas with

heterogeneous, folded, faulted crust.
Implication:

Shaking by Region

Definition:

Amplification

P and S waves slow as they travel through alluvial

sand, gravel, clay, soil, etc.

Figure 3.12

Amplification
Amplification has historically enhanced damage in
San Francisco area earthquakes.

Figure 3.14

Shake Maps
The combination of all of
these effects results in
widespread variation of the
shaking felt in the vicinity of
an earthquake.

Figure 3.4

The Earthquake Cycle

Definition:

It is based on the idea that strain drops abruptly

after an earthquake and then slowly accumulates
until the next earthquake.

The Earthquake Cycle

Figure 3.16

The Earthquake Cycle

A typical cycle has several stages:
- an inactive period

The Earthquake Cycle

- a period where the mainshock occurs allowing the
fault to release built-up stress

The time between each stage varies.

Geographic Regions at
Risk from Earthquakes
Earthquakes are not randomly distributed.
Most earthquakes occur along plate boundaries:

North American cities at high risk of earthquakes:

However, not all areas at risk of earthquakes are

near plate boundaries.

Earthquakes in Canada

Plate Boundary Earthquakes

Definition:

There are three types:

Strike-Slip Earthquakes
These earthquakes occur along transform faults
where plates slide horizontally past one another.

The best known strike-slip earthquake is the Loma

Prieta earthquake that disrupted the 1989 World
Series in Oakland, California.

Thrust Earthquakes
These earthquakes occur on faults that separate
converging plates.
They are also called subduction earthquakes.

Normal Fault Earthquakes

These earthquakes occur on faults associated with
divergent plate boundaries.

Intraplate Earthquakes
Definition:

These earthquakes are typically smaller than plate

boundary earthquakes.

Intraplate Earthquakes
Because of dense continental bedrock, these
earthquakes are felt over large areas.
There are two relatively active intraplate zones in
North America:
The New Madrid earthquakes in Missouri (1811-12)
were over M7.5 and felt over the entire continent.

Earthquake Hazard Map

Effects of
Earthquakes
Several different effects
related to earthquakes
contribute to deaths
and property
destruction.
Primary effects:

Secondary effects:

Ground Rupture
Displacement along faults causes cracks in the
surface.
During strong earthquakes, fault scarps can be
produced that extend for hundreds of kilometres.

Figure 3.20

Ground Rupture
Ground rupture can uproot
trees, collapse buildings, and
destroy bridges, tunnels,
and pipelines.

Liquefaction

Definition:
The transformation of water saturated sediment
from sold to liquid
This may occur during strong earthquakes when
water pressure becomes high enough to suspend
particles of sediment within the soil.
Once the pressure decreases, the sediment
compacts and regains its strength

Liquefaction

Figure 3.24

Figure 3.22

Watery sand and silt may flow upward along

fractures in the overlying solid material.
This effect can cause extensive damage.

Landslides
Ground motion produced by an earthquake can
cause rock and sediment to move downslope.
A single earthquake in a mountainous area can
cause a thousand of landslides

Fires
Ground shaking and rupture can sever power and
gas lines, starting fires.
Appliances may topple over causing gas leaks that
ignite
80% of the damage during the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake was caused by fire

Haiti Earthquake
Haiti has been the poorest country in the western
hemisphere for many years.
The M7.0 earthquake occurred on Jan. 12, 2010.
The epicenter was 25km from Port au prince (the
capital city). Most buildings in the city were
destroyed

Haiti Earthquake
The earthquake occurred along a transform fault.
The destruction was enhanced by poor construction
materials and a lack of building codes

Haiti Earthquake
Landslides affected
slums in the hillsides
surrounding the city.

Haiti Earthquake
Haiti shares the island of Hispaniola with the
Dominican Republic.

Natural Service Functions

of Earthquakes
Faults provide pathways for the downward flow of
surface water.
They can channel groundwater to surface discharge
points (springs)
New mineral resources can be found some
minerals are preferentially deposited in faults
Scenic landscapes (hills, valleys) can develop in
fault zones over millions of years.

Earthquakes Caused by
Human Activity
Several human activities are known to trigger small
to moderate earthquakes.
The weight from water reservoirs produced by dams
can create new faults
Injecting liquid waste deep into the earth can
increase pressure and cause slipping along fractures
Testing nuclear weapons leads to explosions that may
increase strain in an area.

Minimizing the Earthquake Hazard

Earthquakes cause death and destruction because
they often occur with little warning.
At present, we can forecast the likelihood that an
earthquake will occur in an area, but not exactly
when it will occur.

Earthquake Hazard Reduction

Programs
The programs have 5 goals:
- improve national seismograph networks
- develop awareness of earthquake sources

Planning for Earthquakes

Where the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline crossed the
Denali fault, its construction was altered to withstand
a large earthquake.

Figure 3.31

Estimating
Seismic Risk
Hazard maps identify
areas of risk associated
with earthquake effects.

Figure 3.33

Precursors to Earthquakes
If accurate predictions are possible, they will most
likely be based on precursors:
1. The pattern and frequency of earthquakes

2. Land-level change

Precursors to Earthquakes
3. Seismic gaps along faults

4. Physical and chemical changes

Earthquake Forecasting
There have been modest incidences of successfully
forecasting earthquakes.

Research projects along the San Andreas Fault are

aiding in understanding the conditions that occur
before an earthquake.
Current earthquake warning systems provide 15 to
30 seconds of warning and only warn of an
earthquake that has already occurred.

Perception of the Earthquake Hazard

Survivors of strong earthquakes often report
traumatic stress.

Earthquakes have exposed

shoddy construction practices.

Community Adjustments to the

Earthquake Hazard
It is not possible to prevent people from living in
earthquake prone areas.
Therefore, we must take a number of steps to
minimize seismic risk:

- buildings must be designed to withstand vibrations

(in many cases, retrofitting is required)

Community Adjustments to the

Earthquake Hazard
- education is a component of
preparedness (workshops,
training sessions, earthquake
drills)

Personal Adjustments
Most earthquake casualties
result from building collapse
and falling objects.
During an earthquake, it is
best to stay away from
windows and tall furniture.