Measure Phase

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Introduction
An old saying goes:
One accurate measure is
worth a thousand expert
opinions.
The Measure phase allows you
to understand the present
condition of the process
before you attempt to identify
improvements.

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Objective
Deliverables from the Measure Phase:
Selecting & Setting Performance
Standards for Y
Data to be collected (xs & ys)
Operational Definitions
Data Collection Plan
Measurement System Analysis
Baseline data (Current Performance)
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Failure Mode and Effect Analysis

A structured approach for:
Identifying the ways in which a process
can fail to meet critical customer
requirements.
Estimating the risk of specific causes with
regard to these failures.
Evaluating the current control plan for
preventing these failures from occurring.
Prioritizing the actions that should be
taken to improve the process.

Identify ways the product or process

can fail, then plan to prevent those
failures
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Use of FMEA
Why Use FMEA
To identify and prioritize parts of the product or
process that need further improvement.
To ensure the quality, reliability and safety of products
and services
To document and track actions taken to reduce risk
To develop action plans to avoid risk/defects
When to Use FMEA
When a service, product or process is created,
improved, or redesigned
When existing products, services, or processes are
used in new ways or in new environments.
In the Measure phase of DMAIC to identify potential
failures in current process steps.
In the improve phase of DMAIC to expose potential
problems in the solution.
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FMEA Terminology
Failure Mode:

The manner in which a part or process can fail to meet

specification

Usually associated with a Defect or non conformance.

Cause :

A deficiency that results in a Failure Mode

Causes are sources of Variability associated with Key

Process Input Variables

Effect:
Impact on Customer if Failure Mode is not prevented or
corrected
The Failure Mode can be thought of as the inprocess
whereas anorEffect
is the impact
of
Customer defect,
can be downstream
the ultimate
customer
the defect on the customer.

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FMEA Terminology
Severity (SEV):
How significant is the impact of the Effect to the customer
(internal or external)?
Occurrence (OCC):
How likely is the Cause of the Failure Mode to occur?
Detection (DET):
How likely will the current system detect the Cause or Failure
Mode if it occurs?
Risk Priority Number (RPN):

A numerical calculation of the relative risk of a particular

Failure Mode

RPN = SEV x OCC x DET

This number is used to place priority on which process

steps need additional quality planning.

Higher the RPN, higher the risk of the

process step
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Severity

Effect

Design or Process : Customer

Effect

Process : Manufacturing /
Assembling Effect

Very high severity ranking when a potential

Hazardous
failure mode affects safe vehicle operation
10
without warning and / or involves noncompliance with
government regulation without warning

Or may endanger operator (machine or

assembly) without warning

Hazardous with
9
warning

Very high severity ranking when a potential

failure mode affects safe vehicle operation
and / or involves noncompliance with
government regulation with warning

Or may endanger operator (machine or

assembly) without warning

8Very High

Vehicle / item inoperable, (loss of primary

function)

Or 100% of product may have to be scrapped,

or vehicle / item repaired in repair department
with a repair time greater than one hour.

7High

Or product may have to be sorted and a

Vehicle / item operable, but at reduced level portion (less than 100%) scrapped, or vehicle /
of performance. Customer very dissatisfied. item repaired in repair department with a
repair time between a haif-hour and an hour.

6Moderate

Vehicle / item operable, comfort /

convenience item(s) inoperable. Customer
dissatisfied.

5Low
4Very Low
3Minor
2Very Minor
1None

Vehicle / item operable, comfort /

convenience item(s) operable at a reduced
level of performance.
Fit & funish / Squeak & Rattle item does not
confirm. Defect noticed by most of the
customers (greater than 75%).
Fit & funish / Squeak & Rattle item does not
confirm. Defect noticed by 50% of
customers.
Fit & funish / Squeak & Rattle item does not
confirm. Defect noticed by discriminating
customers (less than 25%)
No discernable effect

Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product

may have to be scrapped with no sorting , or
vehicle / item repaired in repair department
with a repair time less than a half-hour.
Or 100% of product may have to be reworked,
or vehicle / item repaired off-line but does not
go to repair department.
Or product may have to be sorted, with no
scrap and a portion (less than 100%)
reworked.
Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product
may have to be reworked, with no scrap, online but out-of-station.
Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product
may have to be reworked, with no scrap, online but in-station.
Or slight inconvenience to operation or
operator, or no effect.

Occurrence

10
9
8
7

Likelihood

Either

Or

Cpk

Very High:

More than 100 per thousand machines /

items / pieces

1 in 10 or less

<0.55

Persistent Failures

50 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 20 - 50

0.55 to 0.78

20 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 50 - 100

0.78 to 0.86

10 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 100 - 200

0.86 to 0.94

5 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 200 - 500

0.94 to 1.00

2 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 500 - 1000

1.00 to 1.10

1 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 1000 - 2000 1.10 to 1.20

0.5 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 2,000 10,000

1.20 to 1.30

0.1 per thousand machines / items / pieces

1 in 10,000 100,000

1.30 to 1.67

Less than 0.010 per thousand machines /

items / pieces

1 in 100,000 or
more

>=1.67

High:
Frequent Failures

6
Moderate:
5

Occasional
Failures

Low: Relatively
Few Failures

2
1

Remote : Failure is
unlikely

Detection

10

Criteria: Likelihood of Detection by

PROCESS control
Design Control will not and / or cannot
Absolute certainty detect a potential cause / mechanism and
of non- detection subsequent failure mode; or there is no
design control.
Controls will
Very remote chance the design control will
probably not
detect a potential cause / mechanism and
detect
subsequent failure mode.
Controls have
Remote chance the design Control will
poor chance of
detect a potential cause / mechanism and
detection
subsequent failure mode
Controls have
Very low chance the design Control will
poor chance of
detect a potential cause / mechanism and
detection
subsequent failure mode
Detection

Controls may
6
detect

Controls may
detect

Controls have a
4 good chance to
detect
Controls have a
3 good chance to
detect
2

Controls almost
certain to detect

Controls almost
1 certain to detect

A B C Suggested Range of Detection Methods

X Cannot detect or is not checked.

Control is achieved with indirect or random

checks only.

X Control is achieved with visual inspection only.

Control is achieved with charting methods,

such as SPC (Statistical Process Control)

Control is based on variable gauging after parts

Low chance the design control will detect a
have left the station, or Go/No Go gauging
potential cause / mechanism and
XX
performed on 100% of the parts after parts
subsequent failure mode.
have left the station.
Moderate chance the design control will
Error detection in subsequent operations OR
detect a potential cause / mechanism and X gauging performed on 100% of the parts after
subsequent failure mode.
parts have left the station.
Moderately high chance the design control
Error detection in subsequent operations OR
will detect a potential cause / mechanism X X gauging performed on setup and first-piece
and subsequent failure mode.
check (for set-up causes only).
Error detection in-station, or error detection in
High chance the design control will detect a
subsequent operations by multiple layers of
potential cause / mechanism and
XX
acceptance: supply, select, install, verify. Can't
subsequent failure mode.
accept discrepant part.
Very high chance the design control will
Error detection in-station (automatic gauging
detect a potential cause / mechanism and X X with automatic syop feature). Cannot accept
subsequent failure mode.
discrepant part.
Design control will detect a potential
Dicrepant parts cannot be made because item
cause / mechanism and subsequent failure
has been error-proof by process /product
mode.
X design.

*Inspection Types: A= Error Proofed, B= Gauging, C= Manual Inspection

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Building an FMEA
Steps for Constructing an FMEA
1.
Identify all major process steps
2.
Within the team brainstorm and group possible
failure modes for each step
3.
List one or more potential effects for each failure
mode
4.
Give a severity rating for each effect
5.
Give an occurrence rating for each failure cause
6.
Give a detection rating for each failure mode
7.
Compute risk priority number (RPN) for each effect
8.
Use the RPNs to prioritize high risk failure modes
9.
Plan to reduce or eliminate the risk associated with
high priority failure modes
10. Execute risk mitigation plans
11. Recalculate RPN
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Performance Standards for Y

CTQ Performance Characteristics
CTQ
Measur
e

Data
type

Unit of
Measu
re

Operation
al
Definition

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LSL

USL

Target

12

Step 1: Data Collection

Ys

already chosen from the Define Phase

Identify the Xs (xs cause y)
Relationship between x & y in Analyze
Phase

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Identifying the Xs

Process

Maps
Cause & Effect Diagram
Cause & Effect Matrices

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Cause & Effect Diagram

Mother
Nature

Machine

Man

Effect Y
(CTQ)

Measuremen
t

Material

Method

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Cause & Effect Diagram Usage

In

Measure phase:

To brainstorm potential x data for

measurement

In

Analyze phase:

To identify potential root causes of particular

problem

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Cause & Effect Matrix

Useful tool for multiple CTQs

High scoring xs are considered for data
collection

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Cause & Effect Matrix

Criteria Based Matrix
Sr.
No
Weight

Lead
time

Cost

Repeat
s

CTQ

10

Total

Customer

87

Applicatio
n

75

Technique

69

Location

177

..

..

(9*8) + (9*10) + (3*5) = 177

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Data types
Discrete data
Gender
Pass/Fail
Invoice errors
Defectives

Continuous
data
Cycle time
Length
Weight
Voltage

Continuous data better for study

more statistical tools available & they require smaller sample size

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Sampling
Why Sampling:
Reduce cost
Reduce time & effort
Reduce loss (if destructive testing)

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Sampling
Important aspects of Sampling:
Collect new data (avoid historical data)
Collect enough data
Sample should represent the entire
population
Use stratification effectively in sampling
Should be random and not predictable
Sampling should be intelligent, not
convenient
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Data Analysis
Numerical

Analysis:
To understand location & spread
Graphical

Analysis:
To understand location, spread & shape

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Numerical Data Analysis

Location

of the data mean/median

Spread

of the data variance, std dev /

range, inter-quartile range

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Symbols for Sample &

Population
Sample

Mean
Standard
Deviation
Variance

Populatio
n

_
x

s2

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Step 2: Measurement System

Analysis (MSA)
MSA

evaluates our Measurement

Systems

MSA

to be done before Capability

Analysis

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MSA Properties for Continuous

Measurements

Repeatability
Reproducibility
Accuracy

(Bias)

Stability
Linearity
Discrimination

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Gage Repeatability
Gage Repeatability is the variation in measurements
obtained
when one operator uses the same gage for measuring
the
identical characteristics of the same part
Example:
A thermometer (Gage ) is used to measure the temperature of boiling
water.

Repeatability If a person measures the temperature

repeatedly using
the same thermometer, do we get the same results always? If
not, then
we have a repeatability problem.
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Gage Reproducibility
Gage Reproducibility is the variation in the average of
measurements made by different operators using the
same gage when measuring identical characteristics of
the same part

Example:
Reproducibility If two people measure the temperature
using the
same thermometer, do we get the same results? If not
then we have a
reproducibility problem.

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Gage Accuracy
Gage Accuracy is the difference between the observed
average of
measurements and the true average
True average is best determined by measuring with the
most accurate
device available or comparing with a reference (eg. NIST,
NPL)
Example:
Accuracy Given the standard temperature of boiling
water at 100C,
does the Gage show a reading of exactly 100C. If not we
have an
accuracy problem.
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Gage Stability
Gage Stability refers to the difference in the average of at
least two sets
of measurements obtained with the same gage on the
same parts taken
at different times.

Example:
Stability does the thermometer show the same reading
when used
after a long period of time? If not then we have a stability
problem.
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Gage Linearity
Gage linearity is the difference in the accuracy values
through the
expected operating rage of the gage

Example:
Linearity If the thermometer is as accurate at
measuring the
temperature of ice at 0C as at measuring the
temperature of boiling
water at 100C.

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Gage Discrimination
To meet the requirements of measurement system, the
gage should be precise and accurate.
Select a gage with
Least count one level lower than the required tolerance
of performance of standard
Variation in gage should be less than expected
variation in process
Example:
If we are measuring the length of Bar having a tolerance
of 1cm, the gage should have a least count of 1mm.

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MSA tolerance
Gage R&R
Contribution

Decision

Action

< 10%

Good
Acceptable

Continue with data collection

10 - 30%

Fair May be Look to improve measurement process

acceptable
and train team involved in measurement.
Make decision based on classification of
characteristic, application, customer
input, etc.

> 30%

Problem
Not
acceptable

Find problem, brainstorm possible causes

and remove root causes.
Is there a better gage in the market; is it
worth the additional cost?

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Step 3: Data Collection

Operational

Definition
Data Collection Plan
Data Collection Forms
Data Collection Process

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Operational Definition

precise definition of the specific y to be

measured (for reliability & consistency)

Removes

ambiguity among team

members
Ensures

the data is collected FTR and

data is useful

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Data Collection Plan

Addresses the following :

Which data to be collected
How much data to be collected
Who will collect the data
Where the data has to be collected
When (or by when) the data has to be
collected
What will be done with data collected
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Data Collection Plan..Example

Y
Measu
re

Operation
al
Definition

Servic
e Call
time

Time
difference
between
the
Customer
call and
Call
resolution

Data
Source
/
Locatio
n

Sampl
e Size

CRM

200

How will data be used?

Who will
collect
the data
Custome
r Service
Executiv
e

When
will Data
be
collecte
d

How
will
Data be
collecte
d

1st
week of
Jan, 2nd
week of
Feb, 3rd
week of
Mar

Call
Analys
is
report
(CRM )

X Data to be
collected
Location,
Customer
Type,
Technique,
Application,
Engineer,
response
time, cycle
time, repeats

How will Data be

displayed?

Identifying big Xs

Histogram

Whether Data normally distributed

Control Chart

Identifying Sources of Variation

Scatter diagrams

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Data Collection Forms

The data collection format should be :
Straight forward
Simple (to minimize errors)
People gathering data should be involved in
format creation
Process owners to be taken into confidence
about the purpose of data collection
Pilot the data collection form initially
Easy access for data information & help to data
collectors
Any problems during data collection should be
recorded for analysis

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Step 4: Baselining the y Data

Sigma

Level
Capability Indices
Cost of Poor Quality (CoPQ)
Yield

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Sigma Level

(for Discrete data)

DPMO

= Defects * 1 million
Units * Opportunities for error

Check

Sigma level from DPMO table

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Sigma Level (for Continuous

data)
Check

whether data is normally

distributed
Calculate Mean & Std dev
Input Specification limits, Mean & Std dev
in the sigma level calculator
Zu = (USL Mean)/s
Zl = (Mean - LSL)/s

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Abridged Process Sigma Conversion Table

Long Term Yield

Process Sigma
(ST)

Defects per
1,000,000

Defects per
1000

Long Term
Yield

Process Sigma
(ST)

Defects per
1,000,000

Defects per
1000

99.999660%

6.0

0.0034

97.130000%

3.4

28700

28.7

99.999500%

5.9

0.005

96.410000%

3.3

35900

35.9

99.999200%

5.8

0.008

95.540000%

3.2

44600

44.6

99.999000%

5.8

10

0.01

94.520000%

3.1

54800

54.8

99.998000%

5.6

20

0.02

93.320000%

3.0

66800

66.8

99.997000%

5.5

30

0.03

91.920000%

2.9

80800

80.8

99.996000%

5.4

40

0.04

90.320000%

2.8

96800

96.8

99.993000%

5.3

70

0.07

88.500000%

2.7

115000

115

99.990000%

5.2

100

0.1

86.500000%

2.6

135000

135

99.985000%

5.1

150

0.15

84.200000%

2.5

158000

158

99.977000%

5.0

230

0.23

81.600000%

2.4

184000

184

99.967000%

4.9

330

0.33

78.800000%

2.3

212000

212

99.952000%

4.8

480

0.48

75.800000%

2.2

242000

242

99.932000%

4.7

680

0.68

69.200000%

2.0

308000

308

99.904000%

4.6

960

0.96

65.600000%

1.9

344000

344

99.865000%

4.5

1350

1.35

61.800000%

1.8

382000

382

99.814000%

4.4

1860

1.86

58.000000%

1.7

420000

420

99.745000%

4.3

2550

2.55

54.00000%

1.6

460000

460

99.654000%

4.2

3460

3.46

50.00000%

1.5

500000

500

99.534000%

4.1

4660

4.66

46.00000%

1.4

540000

540

99.379000%

4.0

6210

6.21

43.000000%

1.3

570000

570

99.181000%

3.9

8190

8.19

39.000000%

1.2

610000

610

98.930000%

3.8

10700

10.7

35.00000%

1.1

650000

650

98.610000%

3.7

13900

13.9

31.000000%

1.0

690000

690

98.220000%

3.6

17800

17.8

97.730000%

3.5

22700

22.7

Short Term Process Sigma,

ZST = ZLT + 1.5

42

Capability Indices
A

metric used to quantify and evaluate

process capability.
Shows how capable process is in terms of
meeting (internal or external) Customer
requirements.
Pre-conditions

for Capability Analysis:

- Is the Process stable
- Is the Process normal

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Capability Indices
Cp

is the potential capability of the

process
Cp = (USL LSL)
Value
< 1.0
1.0
1.5
>1.5
> 2.0

6s

Interpretation of Cp
Poor Capability
Marginal Capability
Good Capability
6 Capability
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Capability Indices
Cpk

shows how capable process is in

terms of meeting Customer requirements
Cpk = min

( (USL Mean) ; (Mean LSL)

3s

3s

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Cp & Cpk
Cp

indicates the
inherent capability
of the process

High

Cp (>1)
means good
process control &
repeatability

Cpk

indicates the
process capability
with respect to
tolerance
High Cpk (>1.5)
means Six sigma
process, with process
limits comfortably
within tolerance
limits

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Cp & Cpk
If

Cp=1, SW ______ PW

If

Cp>1, SW ______ PW

If

Cp=Cpk, Process Mean _____

Target

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Yield
Yield
First

: First time right (FTR) in %

Time Yield (FTY)

To determine quality level of individual subprocess

Rolled

Throughput Yield (RTY)

Shows quality of entire process. Obtained by

multiplying individual FTYs of sub-processes

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Cost of Poor Quality (CoPQ)

CoPQ

Costs

= Internal + External Failure

Internal

Failures

Scrap, Obsolete Inventory, Rework, etc

External

Failures

Warranty failures, Service Call centers, Product

recalls, etc

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Measure Phase Deliverables

Performance

Standards for Y
Data to be collected (xs & ys)
Operational Definitions
Data Collection Plan
Measurement System Analysis
Baseline data (Current

Performance)

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Thank You

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