SEEPAGE AND FLOW NETS

PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

Soil is a particulate materials consisting of solid grains and pores (or

voids) in between i.e. it is a porous media. The voids in a soil mass are
interconnected, under saturated conditions are filled with water and allow
water to pass through (seep) when subjected to differential head.

Permeability is a measure of the ease with which water flows through

soils and /or rocks. No soil is absolutely impermeable but some of them
are relatively impervious while others are pervious.

PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

A soil is said to be pervious when it offers the minimum possible

resistance to the flow of water. For examples, all clean, coarse-grained
soils are pervious materials. These soils posses very good drainage
conditions and have permeability in the range of >10 -2 to 10-5 m/sec. On
the other hand, soils which offers the maximum resistance to the flow of
water are called impervious (e.g. silts, clays and their mixtures). The
impervious soils have permeability 10-8 m/sec.

Quantity of water passing through a porous media such as soil is known as

Seepage. Study of seepage is essential in the design and construction of all
civil engineering structures in general and hydraulic or water retaining
structures in particular.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

OBJECTIVES
To obtain pore pressure (stability analysis)
To calculate flow
To observe the position of flow
To observe the shape of flow
To verify piping conditions.
Total head at any point can be find out through this analysis
To observe critical gradient

DARCY,S LAW
Henry Darcys Experiment (Dijon, France 1856)
Darcy investigated ground water flow under controlled conditions
h1

h2

Q h, Q 1 x , Q A

Q: Volumetric flow rate [L /T]

A: Cross Sectional Area (Perp. to flow)
K: The proportionality constant is
3

Q
h

Slope = h/x
h1
~ dh/dx
h
h2
x
x1

x2

added to form the following

equation:
h
: Hydraulic Gradient
x

Q A

h
x

Q K A

h
x K units [L/T]

x
5

GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR FLOW NET

CONSTRUCTION

Flow nets are one of the most useful and accepted methods for solution of
Laplace's equation (Casagrande 1937). If boundary conditions and geometry
of a flow region are known and can be displayed two dimensionally, a flow
net can provide a strong visual sense of what is happening (pressures and
flow quantities) in the flow region.

One set of curves represents flow paths of water through the porous media
while curves at right angles to the flow paths show the location of points
within the porous media that have the same piezometric head. The former
are called flow lines, the latter equipotential lines. The flow net is a singular
solution to a specific seepage condition, i.e., there is only one family of
curves that will solve the given geometry and boundary conditions.

This does not mean that a given problem will have only one flow net--we
may choose from the family of curves different sets of curves to define the
problem, figure 4-5. The relationship between the number of equipotential
6

APPROXIMATE RANGE IN K

Approximate range in coefficient of permeability of soils and rocks

(from Milligan 224)

TYPES OF FLOW AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Examples of boundary conditions (courtesy of McGraw-Hill Book

Company180)
8

Methods of SEEP analysis

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Flow Net
Models
a. Electrical Analogy
i. Wet Acqous Solution Gel ( 2D 0r 3D)
ii. Dry (2D)
b. Sand (2D or 3D)
c. Viscous Flow (2D
Analytical Methods
a. Mapping or Transformation
b. Semi Empirical Method of Fragment
c. Closed Form
Numerical And Computer Method
a. Finite Differences
(1,2,3 Di mensional)
b. Finite Element (1,2,3 Dimensional)
Site Methods
a. Test pits and bore hole test
b. Field pumping Test
9

GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR FLOW NET

CONSTRUCTION

a. Net drawn for four flow

channels.

b. Net drawn for five flow

channels.

Figure 4-5. Flow net for a sheet pile wall in a permeable foundation
(from U. S. Army Engineer District, Little Rock92)

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DETERMINATION OF SEEPAGE QUANTITIES,

ESCAPE GRADIENTS, SEEPAGE FORCES AND
UPLIFT PRESSURES
A flow net is a picture of seepage conditions under given geometry and boundary
conditions.
It explains how pressures are distributed and where flow is being directed.
Coupled with the knowledge of head imposed on and the permeability of the
porous media, the flow net can supply important information about stability and
flow quantity in two-dimensional idealization of the real situation.
SEEPAGE QUANTITIES
Each of the complete flow channels passes an equal volume of water per unit of
time, while partial channels carry a proportional flow.
Each of the complete potential drops between equipotential lines is an equal
portion of the total head, h , applied across the flow net with partial drops having
a proportionally smaller part.
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SEEPAGE QUANTITIES
The number of flow channels, including any partial channel, is given the symbol Nf
while the number of equipotential drops, including any partial drops, is given the
symbol Nd .

The ratio of Nf/Nd is called the shape factor, $, which is a characteristic of

the given geometry and boundary conditions and permeability ratios (k1/k2,
kv/kh).
Quantity of flow per unit length through the porous media can be determined
by using Darcy's law, q = kiA and the shape factor. Total flow is the sum of
the flows through each flow channel,
i.e., q = q = Nf q
where q is the total flow and is the flow through each complete flow channel.

12

SEEPAGE QUANTITIES
Since h is the head loss between each equipotential line (h =Ndh) and l is the
dimension of a flow net square:
i = h/ l
and from the Darcy equation:

where a is the area of the rectangle perpendicular to the flow direction. If one side
of the rectangle is one unit of length perpendicular of the plane of the flow net,
and the other dimension is l , thus a = l (1) This leads to:

13

SEEPAGE QUANTITIES

q = q = Nf q

14

FLOW NETS
h= equipotential drop
q
Flow channel
a
Equipotential lines

gradient:

flow per channel:

total flow:

b= l

h h h N e
i

l
b
b
h
h
N
q k A k e A
l
b

a Nf
q q N f k h
b Ne
15

EXAMPLE

16

EXAMPLE
1. Determine boundary equipotentials and flow lines:

lines kb (h1) and hl (h9) are equipotentials because they are at constant
elevation and have constant water depth above them.

lines mn (q1), be (q5) and he (q5) are flow lines because they are
impermeable surfaces

2. Determine boundary heads: head along lines kb and hl are equal to elevation
of boundary above the datum plus depth of water above the boundary:
h1 = 60 ft + 30 ft = 90 ft,
h9 = 60 ft + 5 ft = 65 ft
3. Sketch equipotentials and flow lines
4. Find total h along flow lines (e.g., along q2): h = (h1 h9) = (90 ft 65 ft)
= 25 ft
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EXAMPLE
5. Determine Nd by counting number of equipotential drops (squares) from h1 to
h9: 8 squares are traversed going along q2 from h1 to h9 so Nd = 8
6. Determine hd, the head drop across a square :
hd =h/Nd =25 ft/ 8 ft = 3.125 ft
Thus

h2 = 86.875 h3 = 83.750 h4 = 80.625 h5 = 77.500

h6 = 74.375 h7 = 71.250 h8 = 68.125

7. To determine pressure at point e:
determine elevation of e: ze = 30 ft
point e lies on equipotential h5,
h5 = ze + pe/
so pe = (h5 ze) where = 62.4 lb/ft3
pe = (62.4 lb/ft3) (77.5 ft 30 ft) = 2964 lb/ft2
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FLOW NETS

Example: Unconfined flow

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ESCAPE AND CRITICAL GRADIENTS

The escape or exit gradient, ie , is the rate of dissipation of head per unit of
length in the area where seepage is exiting the porous media. For confined flow,
the area of concern is usually along the uppermost flow line near the flow exit,
e.g., at the downstream edge of a concrete or other impermeable structure, figure
4-15.

Escape gradients for flow through embankments may also be studied by

choosing squares from the area of interest in the flow net (usually at or near the
exit face and downstream toe) and calculating gradients. If the gradient is too
great where seepage is exiting, soil particles may be removed from this area.

This phenomenon, called flotation, can cause piping (the removal of soil
particles by moving water) which can lead to undermining and loss of the
structure. The gradient at which flotation of particles begins is termed the
critical gradient, icr . Critical gradient is determined by the in-place unit weight
of the soil and is the gradient at which upward drag forces on the soil particles
equal the submerged weight of the soil particles, figure 4-16.
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ESCAPE AND CRITICAL GRADIENTS

The critical gradient is dependent on the specific gravity and density of the soil particles
and can be defined in terms of specific gravity of solids, Gs , void ratio, e , and porosity,
n:

or, since e = n / (1-n) and n = e/ (1 + e)

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ESCAPE AND CRITICAL GRADIENTS

If typical values of Gs , e , and n for sand are used in the above equations, ic r
will be approximately 1.

Investigators have recommended ranges for factor of safety for escape

gradient, FSG from 1.5 and 15, depending on knowledge of soil and possible
seepage conditions. Generally, factors of safety in the range of 4-5 (Harr
1962, 1977) or 2.5-3 (Cedergren 1977) have been proposed.

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Steps to be followed in SEEP/W

1. Plotting the Problem
1. Mark coordinates of given drawing. (Fix origin as (o, elevation), plot remaining coordinates
according to dimensions of drawing)
2. Set page size as a3, a4 etc.(Inches or centimeters)
3. Set scale keeping in view the minimum and maximum dimensions of drawing. (For plotting
select same scale fo and horizontal.) Give some extra space in horizontal and vertical
dimensions. (Feet or meters),(when we select scale in feet or meter the unit weight of water
will also select as 9.8 KN/m3 OR 62.4 lbs/ft3).
4. Set grid spacing as 1m*1m. (Snap and display grid, the grid spacing can be changed as and
when required e.G; if our cordinate is at (0.5, 3316.5) we can set grid spacing as
0.5m*0.5m)
5. Go to keyinn than to analysis settings, in analysis settings give project id, type as steadystate and control as 2-dimensional.
6. Plot coordinates by clicking on keyinn then on nodes, give node no. Starting from 1, xcoordinate and y-coordinate. After filling the data for each node
23

Steps to be followed in SEEP/W

Click on copy.
Once you have plot all the nodes join them by taking line command.

2. Meshing the problem

For meshing go to draw than to elements. There are four options in elements
(i) SINGLE QUADRILATERAL, (ii) SINGLE TRIANGLE, (iii) QUADRILETRAL REGION
MESH AND (iv) TRIANGULAR REGIONAL MESH.
. We will use quadrilateral region mesh where the region is straight (i.E.; In regular portions)
for irregular portions we can mesh by using single quadrilateral or single triangular.
. Meshing should be done for permeable portions. Each node should be connected to an
element. (I.E.; There should be no free node). The elements should be regular shape i.E.; A
square or an equilateral triangle.
1. For deleting a node or element use modify command. The modify command can also be
used for shifting the position of an object.
2. If you want to extend the problem to infinite dimensions for foundation material. Then
assign infinite region to the 1st and last coulum as ve infinity and +ve infinity.
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Steps to be followed in SEEP/W

3. Material Properties
1. Go to keyinn then to functions, select conductivity function.
a. For conductiviy function 1 give decription of material and value of kx for two
pressure ranges on 0 and 100. (Because conductivity value remains same for
range of pressure between 0 and 100).Select ok then repeat the same for 2 nd
material and so on.
2. Go to keyinn then to material properties.Fill the required informations. Sr. No., K fn
no. Wc. Fn. =0, k-ratio, k-direction=0 and colour.Repeat for each material.
3. All elements will be of ist material colour. Assign material properties to the elements.
Go to draw then to element properties. Go to material no as 1, 2 or 3 etc and check the
box. Then click on relevant elemnts their colour will be change and proerties will
assign..

25

Steps to be followed in SEEP/W

4. Boundary conditions
1. Go to draw then to boundary conditions. Select type as total flux and action as zero,
curser will change to crosshair than select the nodes just below the impervious portion
and the nodes at the left, right and bottom of the foundation material. At the selected
nodes blue arrow will form.I.E; water will not flow through or across these boundaries.
2. Select boundary type as head, action as elevation of npl or mpl, then select the top nodes
on upstream portion below this level, the nodes will shoe red dots.
3. Select boundary type as head, action as elevation of the downstream level, select the
nodes on downstream portion at this level, the selected nodes will show red dots.Select
done

5. Solve
6. Go to tools and then to verify. Verify the problem horizontally and vertically.
7. Go to tools then to solve.Start solving, done when solving is complte.

26

Steps to be followed in SEEP/W

5. Solve
3. For viewing the results go to tools and then to contour. To draw the contours go to
draw and then to contour the increments and no. Of contours can be changed in this
step.
4. Labelling of contours can be done by going to draw and then to contour labels, then
clicking on contours.
5. The reults such as pressure, pressure head, total head, permeabilities, and exit
gradients etc can be viewed by going to view then to node information.
6. The graph can also be plott by going to draw and then to grpah.Flow paths can also be
draw by going to draw then to flow paths.

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