18 T H -20 T H CENTURY

ARCHITECTURE
AR266B

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

JACOB ENRIQUE C. FLORES

Arch. ED WARDO B LLEDO

 TAB L E O F C ON T E NT S

ARCHITECTURE OF THE 18TH – 19TH CENTURY

ARCHITECTURE OF THE 20TH CENTURY

ARCHITECTUREL STYLES
 1 8 T H – 1 9 T H C E N T U RY A R C H I T E C T U R E

Palladianism and the English stately home: 18th century

Britain in the early 18th century is the scene of a strong reaction against the self-indulgence of
baroque architecture, replacing it with the clear-cut classical lines of Palladio. The style of the great
Venetian architect is known in England only from his four books of designs (the Quattro Libri) and
from the London masterpieces of an enthusiast returning from Italy, Inigo Jones. These are the
Banqueting House in Whitehall (1622) and the Queen's House in Greenwich (1629-40).
Inigo Jones's pioneering work in the Palladian style remains very little imitated for the rest of the 17th
century, a period dominated by baroque.
 


Baroque still prevails in the early 18th century as the preferred style
for any grandee planning a magnificent country seat. The most
Neoclassicism: 18th - 19th century AD
obvious examples are two buildings designed by Vanbrugh and
Hawksmoor in partnership - Castle Howard for the earl of Carlisle in
Ever since the Renaissance, successive generations of artists and
1700-26, Blenheim Palace for the duke of Marlborough in 1705-22. architects have turned to classical models for inspiration. Even at the
But while Castle Howard and Blenheim are under construction, the height of baroque (the least classical of styles in mood or line)

prevailing fashion changes. A collection of classical designs in the contemporary grandees are often depicted in togas. Military heroes,
however foolish they may look, strutt in the stiff ribbed kilt of the
Palladian style is published in 1715, under the title Vitruvius
Roman legionary.
Britannicus, by a British architect, Colen Campbell.
  Vitruvius Britannicus launches a new fashion in 18th-century During the 18th century a quest for classical authenticity is
England. In 1717 the earl of Burlington employs Campbell to undertaken with new academic vigour. There are several reasons.
Archaeological sites such as Pompeii are being excavated. And
remodel his London house in Piccadilly in the Palladian style. In
interest is shifting from the Roman part of the classical heritage to the
1722 Robert Walpole commissions him to build Houghton Hall, a
Greek.
large Palladian country house in Norfolk.  
In architecture there has already been a strong classical revival early in the
century, particularly in the Palladian movement in Britain. Robert Adam,
returning from Rome in 1757 with a multitude of classical themes and
motifs in his head, creates an eclectic style very much his own - in which
classical severity and rococo fancy are subtly blended to satisfy his
customers.
By the turn of the century these pleasant fancies seem too frivolous. A
more rigorously Greek style becomes the architectural fashion in many
parts of Europe.
  A version of the Parthenon rises from 1806 in Paris, on Napoleon's orders,
to become eventually the church of La Madeleine. Another Parthenon
begins to be built on Calton Hill in Edinburgh in 1822 as a memorial to the
Scots who have died in the Napoleonic wars (it remains uncompleted). The
design chosen for the new British Museum, on which work begins in 1823,
is a Parthenon with extensions.
So the 19th century acquires, through neoclassicism and the Greek
Revival, a conventional style of considerable vigour. Architects of
important new buildings, whether churches, parliaments or banks, will now
consider a sprinkling of Greek columns as one serious option. The other,
resulting from another 18th-century revival, is to go Gothic.
 
 Gothic Revival: 18th - 19th century AD

The Gothic Revival begins at the same time as the first stirrings of neoclassicism, in the mid-18th century. Though
entirely different in their results, the two movements share a similar impulse. After a century and a half of baroque
each looks nostalgically to the past for a purer source of inspiration.
However the Gothic revivalists do so at first in a more frivolous mood than the earnest archaelogical advocates of
neoclassicism. Indeed the most famous early example of the Gothic Revival, Horace Walpole's Strawberry Hill (begun in
1750), can also be seen as a branch of rococo - an attempt by a fashionable host to find a new decorative theme to
amuse his visitors.
  A growing interest in the mysterious Middle Ages, as an antidote to the dry certainties of rationalism and the
Enlightenment, is reflected also in the literary field in the first stirrings of the Romantic movement. In 1762, while the
fan-vaulted gallery is being built in Strawberry Hill, the literary world is bowled over with enthusiasm for a newly
discovered medieval Celtic poem, Ossian's Fingal (a fake, as it turns out).
Horace Walpole is a significant figure in both these aspects of the Gothic Revival. Strawberry Hill is complete by 1776.
Walpole's Castle of Otranto, an early prototype of the Gothic novel as a spine-tingling tale of medieval villainies and
wronged innocence, is published in 1764.
  The light-hearted approach to the Gothic Revival survives into the early 19th century. Then, as with neoclassicism and
in keeping with the times, a greater solemnity sets in. Gothic becomes one of the main 19th-century styles for public
buildings (town halls and law courts as well as churches).

In competition with the Greek Revival, the Gothic style has economy on its side. The stone lintels required to span a
large opening in a Greek temple are expensive. It is soon realized by cost-conscious architects that pointed Gothic
arches can be built in brick and cheaply clad in stone. More than 2500 Anglican churches are built in England and
Wales between 1821 and 1850, and nearly all of them are Gothic.
The eclectic century: 19th century AD

The 19th-century fascination in Europe with the

architecture of the past begins with Greek temples and
Gothic cathedrals, but soon extends to encompass a
bewildering range of other historical styles - Egyptian,
Byzantine, Romanesque, Venetian Gothic, Muslim Indian,
and even, in a final convolution, the many Renaissance
styles which are themselves a response to earlier periods.

This most self-confident of centuries takes what it likes

from these many sources, mixes and matches them,
develops and distorts them to create magnificent buildings.
The effect is of its time, but the ingredients are not. Only
one feature of 19th-century architecture is entirely new in
the west - the use of cast iron.
Glass, iron and prefabrication: AD 1837-1851
The public first becomes aware of the glorious potential of cast-iron
architecture in the 1840s, when extraordinary conservatories are erected at
Chatsworth and in Kew Gardens. But the technology derives from factory
construction in the 1790s.
With Boulton and Watt's steam machinery in operation, conventional factories
using timber for joists and floors are prone to disastrous fires. The occasional
use of cast iron for structural purposes goes back many centuries in China, for
temple pagodas, but it is an innovation in Britain when William Strutt builds
the first fireproof mill at Derby, in 1792-3, with floors on shallow brick arches
supported on cast-iron pillars.
  Strutt's mill still contains some massive wooden beams, but an entirely
wood-free factory is constructed at Ditherington, near Shrewsbury, in 1796-7.
Arched brick floors, on cast-iron beams and pillars, become the standard
factory and warehouse interior of the 19th century.
The next and most glamorous stage in cast-iron architecture is linked above
all with the name of Joseph Paxton. As superintendent of the duke of
Devonshire's gardens at Chatsworth, he builds there in 1837-40 a great
conservatory, shaped like a tent (277 feet long and 67 feet high) but consisting
entirely of cast iron and glass.
Georgian architecture was the style of the
18th century, especially from the reign of
King George I who ascended the throne in
1711, until the American Revolution (King
George III). Building during this period
closely adheres to English precedents,
which were made accessible through
printed books on architecture. The
Georgian style was relatively homogeneous
from Maine through the southern states
State House, Boston

Federalist Architecture
Especially common in New
England; a traditionalist
approach to classicism, heavily
influenced by English models.
Charles Bulfinch, Samuel
MacIntyre.
 18 T H CENTURRY
Rococo, Neoclassicism and Romanticism are three influential movements from the
eighteenth century, a pluralistic century of "movements" rather than of period styles (in
that respect, much like our own times). These movements are not sequential
developments, but constantly overlapping reactions and counteractions. The Rococo
style: The art of the first half of the eighteenth century represents, in some respects, a
continuation of the High Baroque style. It matters little whether Neumann, for example,
was a Rococo or Late Baroque architect. Italy, Southern Germany, and France remained
tied to the Baroque tradition in its last manifestation, the Rococo, in which the
interaction of space and form in movement remained a basic element of design.
The French architect Germain Boffrand (1667-1754) was one of the most distinguished
designers in Paris of private palaces and town houses (hotels) for the aristocracy. In his
designs for both exteriors and interiors, an impression of elegance and refinement is
given by the use of smooth, light-colored surfaces, occasionally curved, and extensive
areas of glass (windows and mirrors). Exterior decoration comprises restrained patterns
of horizontal grooves, variations in the curved crowns of window openings, and
occasional accents of sculpture in low relief. On the interior, mirrors, wall panelling, and
window openings are united by rocaille ornament: a free, curvilinear two- dimensional
pattern of crisp stucco plant and shell forms, in arabesques and cartouches, open and
lively in contour and occasionally asymmetrical. Furniture and painted panels pick up
the rhythms of this architectural ornament. Such Rococo decoration was particularly
popular in Germany, as represented here by Amalienburg.
Neoclassicism. Eighteenth-century archeological studies combined with a reaction in taste against
the decorative Rococo style, and a desire to revive certain of the historical connotations of the ancient
world (such as the heroic virtues of the Roman Republic) produced a Neo- Classical revival in the
second half of the eighteenth century in Europe and the United States--although the brilliant villa at
Chiswick was much earlier. Classicizing works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (especially
those of Palladio) often served as models. In general, earlier Neo-Classicism uses Roman models and
emphasizes their republican associations. The Greek Doric order is revived, and we speak specifically
of the Greek Revival style.
Thomas Jefferson (American, 1743-1826), an architect as well as a statesman and a scholar, was
well read in the classicist theories of architecture and acquainted with the famous models of European
classicism. His desire to establish a sense of cultural tradition in this new country is reflected in his
architecture. For his own country house (Monticello), he modified a Palladio design to meet local
practical needs, and "translated" it into local materials. He was one of the first architects to adapt
Roman building types to the functional requirements of public and academic buildings.
Romanticism. Neo-Classicism was one aspect of the wider Romantic movement (c. 1750-
1850), which began, primarily in England and Germany, as an urge towards simple, sincere
feeling and natural behavior as opposed to court etiquette. All historical styles were
thought to be natural and desirable as antidotes to the unpleasant reality of Rococo
artificiality and the industrial revolution. The word "romantic" was applied to whatever
might call forth "sublime" associations: ruins and other reminders of past grandeur and of
the melancholy passage of time; manifestations of the forces of nature and man's
impotence before them; and expressions of extreme emotion, reflecting the uncontrolled
forces in man's nature, from passion to insanity. The Gothic style--used by Horace Walpole
at Strawberry Hill--was considered one to bring out these associations; but there are
buildings reflecting the exotic styles of China, Egypt, and, in the nineteenth century, North
Africa. Although the outward forms of the revival styles are copied, sometimes fancifully,
sometimes exactly, the content is never that of the original style, but always "romantic".
A century of Architecture
Federal ~~ 1800-1825
Greek revival ~~ 1826-
Gothic Revival ~~ 1830's
Italianate ~~ mid 1800's-1885 French Second Empire ~~ 1851-
1870 Stick Style ~~ 1858 Queen Anne ~~ 1858-1900's
The foundations for the Victorian House were first laid in Great Britain before Queen Victoria took
the throne in 1837. Domestic Architecture had become the expression of Victorian Britain's structure.
Now the Victorian House not only reflected the social standing of it's occupant but the position he
wished to attain.

By the early 19th century the Neo-classical, Greek and Roman styles that were inherited from the
18th century were already losing popularity. Queen Victoria admired Italian Renaissance style and
chose that style for her Osborn House.

By the middle of the 19th century most country house aspirants favored such styles as English Gothic
and Elizabethan. Other styles were Old English, French, Italian, Medieval, Belgian and German.

American's were enamored with Greek Revival structures and homes because of it's associations with
democracy. Most public buildings had pediments, columned porticoes and friezes.
Quickly the Gothic Revival became popular, a design from England. Among the many of the Gothic
Style architects of that day were Alexander Jackson Davis and Andrew Jackson Downing. Many
Gothic houses featured diamond-paned bay windows, tall thin chimneys, scroll-sawn trim, now what
has coined the term "gingerbread house". Downies houses were distinguished by steep roof slopes,
balconies, porches, and gabled windows.

From the mid 1800's - 1885 the Italianate, inspired by the Renassaince structures, flourished. It's
characteristics were marked by a square cupola, tower surmounting a low pitched roof, wide eaves,
decorative and intricate carved brackets below, tall narrow windows with U shaped hood molds.
These home were generally squared or rectangular.

French Second Empire is known for its steeped mansard roof, sometimes with concave curved planes.
This decorative style featured elaborate door and window surrounds, iron casting above bracketed
eaves along the roofline, one or two story porches with balustrades above or below. This style became
so popular after the Civil War that it became known as the General Grant style, in America.
The Queen Anne Revival was the epitome of the eclectic Victorian
styles. Many of the assymetrical Queen Annes were built in the Shingle
style, which was popular in Resort structures. These houses featured
deeply recessed arched entryways, shingled or stonework piers for porch
supports, high pitched multi-level roofs, towers, and much ornamental
spoolwork.

This is but a few of the styles that were popular. There were other revivals
throughout America as well. But the ones listed were the most popular and
left the grandest impression on what Victorian Architecture really was all
about
 2 0 T H C E N T U RY
A R C H I T E C T U RE

Modern architecture is characterized by simplification of form and

creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. The first
variants were conceived early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was
adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, however
very few "Modern buildings" were built in the first half of the century. It
gained popularity after the Second World War and became the dominant
architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for three decades,
covering practically most of the Cold War era.
 ORIGINS
Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of
Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. The Modern style developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and
political revolutionsOthers see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering
developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, and glass drove the
invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles
Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction
greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to
poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until
the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction,
this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the
description of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills"
 Other historians regard Modernism as a
matter of taste, a reaction against
eclecticism and the lavish stylistic
excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian
Art Nouveau. Note that the Russian word
for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the
Melnikov House near Arbat Spanish word for Art Nouveau,
"Modernismo" are cognates of the
Street in Moscow by Konstantin
English word "Modern" though they carry
Melnikov. different meanings.
 Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of
architects around the world began developing
new architectural solutions to integrate
traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with
new technological possibilities. The work of
Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in
Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi
in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and

The Seagram Building, New York Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among
many others, can be seen as a common struggle
City, 1958. One of the finest examples between old and new. An early use of the term in

of the functionalist aesthetic and a print around this time, approaching its later
meaning, was in the title of a book by
masterpiece of corporate modernism. Otto Wagner
 Modernist architecture has been more widely accepted
as an appropriate residential style in Europe, where the
populace is generally more exposed to culture and art
than much of the world. This level of education imparts
a tendency to accept new ideas while preserving their
rich heritage, which is evidenced in the mix of new and
old architecture, both intentional and unintentional, that
Therme Vals, a hotel / spa complex in one sees in many major European cities today[8]. Also,
one could argue that the numerous modern institutional
Vals, Switzerland, designed by Peter
and commercial buildings that permeate European
Zumthor. It characterizes the European countries have adjusted their denizens to this type of
design; Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,
practice of exploring the juxtaposition of
for example, has been one of the best received modern

modern architecture, nature, and pieces in history with over ten million visitors since its
opening in 1997[9].
centuries-old traditional designs.
 ARCHITECTURAL
STYLES

often Romanticism An artistic and intellectual movement

originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by
a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's
expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the
attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established
social rules and conventions.
Romantic quality or spirit in thought, expression, or action.
 ROMANTICISM
Late-C18 and early C19 artistic forward, including the beak-head, billet, movement, its many variations and strands cable, chevron, double
cone, nebule, and defying any neat definition. The one character-reversed zig-zag. istic found throughout its sundry manifestations was the
insistence on individual experience, intuition, instinct, and emotion. Commonly perceived as a reaction against the rationalism of the
Enlightenment, Classicism, and Neo-Classicism, it nevertheless shared with Classicism reverence for the ideal, transcending reality, hence
the term Romantic Classicism applied to works displaying a Romantic response to the Antique. A perfect Ancient Greek temple in its pristine
state would be Classical, but a ruined Greek temple, though Classical in one sense, cannot be Classical in another because it is broken,
incomplete, partial, and in ruins. Such a ruin might, however, be perceived as beautiful, and so a Classical building constructed as a ‘ruin’ in
an C18 garden could be described as an example of Romantic Classicism. Asymmetrical compositions set in the context of the Picturesque
often are purely Classical in detail, such as Schinkel's exquisite buildings at Potsdam (Charlottenhof and the Roman Baths complex), and so
can be classed as examples of Romantic Classicism.

Form, in Romantic art, was determined by the inner idea within the subject represented, and the yearning for spirituality and inner meaning
allied Romanticism with medievalism, Historicism, the Picturesque, the Gothic Revival, and the Sublime. A new tenderness towards the
dead, a love of melancholy, and the cultivation of feelings were characteristics of Romanticism, creating elegiac gardens, the first cemeteries,
and fuelling the religious revival that was such an important part of C19 European and American culture.
Arts House (Muveszetek Haza), Szekszard

The Romantic-style synagogue built in the 1890's was designed

by Hans Petschnigg, a teacher at the technical university in Graz.
József Kerényi lead out in the reconstruction of the building
which is today the Arts House
 NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the

neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century, manifested both
in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament,
and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing
features of Late Baroque. In its purest form it is a style principally derived
from the architecture of Classical Greece and the architecture of Italian
Andrea Palladio. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall
rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts.
The Cathedral of Vilnius
(1783), by Laurynas Pulteney Bridge, Bath,

Gucevičius England, by Robert Adam

The Shanghai International

Convention Centre, a
prominent example of Soviet
neoclassical architecture in the
People's Republic of China
 NEOCLASSICAL
High neoclassicism was an international movement. Though neoclassical architecture employs the same
classical vocabulary as Late Baroque architecture, it tends to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than
sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade are flatter; sculptural bas-
reliefs are flatter and tend to be enframed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual
features are isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and complete in themselves.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially
the Old Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House
and Capitol in Washington, DC in the United States. The Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial
Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg.
Italy clung to Rococo until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was
embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.
 EXPRESSIONIST ARCHITECTURE

Characteristics

Expressionist architecture was individualistic and in many ways eschewed aesthetic dogma, [7] but it is still useful to develop some criteria which
defines it. Though containing a great variety and differentiation, many points can be found as recurring in works of Expressionist architecture, and
are evident in some degree in each of its works.

Distortion of form for an emotional effect.

Subordination of realism to symbolic or stylistic expression of inner experience.

An underlying effort at achieving the new, original, and visionary.

Profusion of works on paper, and models, with discovery and representations of concepts more important than pragmatic finished products.

Often hybrid solutions, irreducible to a single concept.

Themes of natural romantic phenomena, such as caves, mountains, lightning, crystal and rock formations.[ As such it is more mineral and
elemental than florid and organic which characterized its close contemporary art nouveau.

Utilises creative potential of artisan craftsmanship.

Tendency more towards the gothic than the classical. Expressionist architecture also tends more towards the romanesque and the rococo than the
classical.

Though a movement in Europe, expressionism is as eastern as western. It draws as much from Moorish, Islamic, Egyptian, and Indian art and
architecture as from Roman or Greek.

Conception of architecture as a work of art.
 EXPRESSIONALISM

Expressionist architecture was an architectural movement that developed in Europe during the first decades of the 20th
century in parallel with the expressionist visual and performing arts.

The term "Expressionist architecture" initially described the activities of the German, Dutch, Austrian, Czech and Danish avant
garde from 1910 until ca. 1924. Subsequent redefinitions extended the term backwards to 1905 and also widened it to
encompass the rest of Europe. Today the meaning has broadened even further to refer to architecture of any date or location that
exhibits some of the qualities of the original movement such as; distortion, fragmentation or the communication of violent or
overstressed emotion.

The style was characterised by an early-modernist adoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual massing,
sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms, sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production
of brick, steel and especially glass. Many expressionist architects fought in World War I and their experiences, combined with
the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the German Revolution of 1919, resulted in a utopian outlook and a
romantic socialist agenda.[Economic conditions severely limited the number of built commissions between 1914 and the mid
1920s,[3] resulting in many of the most important expressionist works remaining as projects on paper, such as Bruno Taut's
Alpine Architecture and Hermann Finsterlin's Formspiels. Ephemeral exhibition buildings were numerous and highly significant
during this period. Scenography for theatre and films provided another outlet for the expressionist imagination,[4] and provided
supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge conventions in a harsh economic climate.
Einstein Tower in Potsdam-
Berlin by Erich Mendelsohn
1919-22
Catholic parish church
"Heilig-Kreuz" at
Gelsenkirchen by Josef Franke,
1927–1929
 CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivist architecture was a form of modern architecture that

flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s. It
combined advanced technology and engineering with an avowedly
Communist social purpose. Although it was divided into several
competing factions, the movement produced many pioneering projects
and finished buildings, before falling out of favour around 1932. Its
effects have been marked on later developments in architecture.
 CONSTUCTIVISM
Constructivist architecture emerged from the wider constructivist art movement, which grew out of
Russian Futurism. Constructivist art had attempted to apply a three-dimensional cubist vision to wholly abstract
non-objective 'constructions' with a kinetic element. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 it turned its attentions
to the new social demands and industrial tasks required of the new regime. Two distinct threads emerged, the
first was encapsulated in Antoine Pevsner's and Naum Gabo's Realist manifesto which was concerned with space
and rhythm, the second represented a struggle within the Commissariat for Enlightenment between those who
argued for pure art and the Productivists such as Alexander Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Vladimir Tatlin,
a more socially-oriented group who wanted this art to be absorbed in industrial production. [1]
A split occurred in 1922 when Pevsner and Gabo emigrated. The movement then developed along socially
utilitarian lines. The productivist majority gained the support of the Proletkult and the magazine LEF, and later
became the dominant influence of the architectural group O.S.A.
 M

Narkomfin Building by
Moisei Ginzburg. Currently
under threat of demolition, the
Hotel Iset (Yekaterinburg, building is at the top of
'Chekists Village') UNESCO's 'Endangered
Buildings' list, and there is an
international campaign to save
it
Van Nelle Factory in School 518 by Ivan Zvezdin,
Rotterdam by 1935
Leendert van der Vlugt (and
Mart Stam) 1927-31
ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE
Organic architecture is a philosophy of architecture which promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural
world through design approaches so sympathetic and well integrated with its site that buildings, furnishings, and
surroundings become part of a unified, interrelated composition. Architects Gustav Stickley, Antoni Gaudi, Louis Sullivan,
Frank Lloyd Wright, John Lautner, Claude Bragdon, Bruce Goff, Rudolf Steiner, Bruno Zevi, Hundertwasser, Imre
Makovecz, Neville Gruzman and most recently Anton Alberts, Nari Gandhi, John Preihs and Laurie Baker are all famous for
their work with organic architecture.
Organic architecture is also translated into the all inclusive nature of Frank Lloyd Wright’s design process. Materials,
motifs, and basic ordering principals continue to repeat themselves throughout the building as a whole. The idea of organic
architecture refers not only to the buildings' literal relationship to the natural surroundings, but how the buildings' design is
carefully thought about as if it were a unified organism. Geometries throughout Wright’s buildings build a central mood and
theme. Essentially organic architecture is also the literal design of every element of a building: From the windows, to the
floors, to the individual chairs intended to fill the space. Everything relates to one another, reflecting the symbiotic ordering
systems of nature.
ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE
The term organic architecture was coined by the famous architect, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), though never
well articulated by his cryptic style of writing:
"So here I stand before you preaching organic architecture: declaring organic architecture to be the modern ideal
and the teaching so much needed if we are to see the whole of life, and to now serve the whole of life, holding no
traditions essential to the great TRADITION. Nor cherishing any preconceived form fixing upon us either past,
present or future, but instead exalting the simple laws of common sense or of super-sense if you prefer determining
form by way of the nature of materials..." - Frank Lloyd Wright, written in 1939[ Other modernist architects in the
U.S., Europe, and elsewhere held complementary and often competing views of how architecture could best
emulate nature. Key figures in the U.S. included Louis Sullivan and Claude Bragdon, while among European
modernists Hugo Häring and Hans Scharoun stand out. Following World War II, organic architecture often reflected
cybernetic and informatic models of life, as is reflected in the later work of Buckminster Fuller.
Architect and planner David Pearson proposed a list of rules towards the design of organic
architecture. These rules are known as the Gaia Charter for organic architecture and design. It
reads:
"Let the design:
be inspired by nature and be sustainable, healthy, conserving, and diverse.
unfold, like an organism, from the seed within.
exist in the "continuous present" and "begin again and again".
follow the flows and be flexible and adaptable.
satisfy social, physical, and spiritual needs.
"grow out of the site" and be unique.
celebrate the spirit of youth, play and surprise.
express the rhythm of music and the power of dance
 Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright
 A RT N O U V E A U A R C H I T E C T U R E

In architecture, hyperbolas and parabolas in windows, arches and doors are common,
and decorative mouldings 'grow' into plant-derived forms. Like most design styles, Art
Nouveau sought to harmonise its forms. The text above the Paris Metro entrance
follows the qualities of the rest of the iron work in the structure.[35]
Art Nouveau in architecture and interior design eschewed the eclectic revival styles
of the Victorian era. Though Art Nouveau designers selected and 'modernized' some of
the more abstract elements of Rococo style, such as flame and shell textures, they also
advocated the use of highly stylized organic forms as a source of inspiration,
expanding the 'natural' repertoire to embrace seaweed, grasses, and insects.
Art Nouveau is rarely so
fully in control of
architecture: doorway at
place Etienne Pernet, 24 (
Paris 15e), 1905 Alfred
Wagon, architect

"Majolikahaus" (det.)
1898 by Otto Wagner
 ART DECO STYLE
Art Deco was a popular international art design movement from 1925 until the 1940s, affecting the decorative arts such as architecture,
interior design and industrial design, as well as the visual arts such as fashion, painting, the graphic arts and film. At the time, this style was
seen as elegant, glamorous, functional and modern.
The movement was a mixture of many different styles and movements of the early 20th century, including Neoclassical, Constructivism,
Cubism, Modernism, Art Nouveau, and Futurism.[1] Its popularity peaked in Europe during the Roaring Twenties[2] and continued strongly
in the United States through the 1930s.[3] Although many design movements have political or philosophical roots or intentions, Art Deco
was purely decorative.[4]
Art Deco experienced a decline in popularity during the late '30s and early '40s, but experienced a resurgence with the popularization of
graphic design in the 1980s. Art Deco had a profound influence on many later artistic movements, such as Memphis and Pop art.
Surviving examples may still be seen in many different locations worldwide, in countries as diverse as China (Shanghai), United Kingdom
, Spain, Cuba, Indonesia, the Philippines, Argentina, Romania, Australia, New Zealand, India, Brazil, Colombia, and the United States
(primarily in Miami, Los Angeles and New York City). Many classic examples still exist in the form of architecture in many major cities.
The Empire State Building and Chrysler Building, both in New York City, are two of the largest and best-known examples of the style.
 ART DECO

Art Deco is characterized by use of materials such as aluminium,

stainless steel, lacquer and inlaid wood.] Exotic materials such as sharkskin (
shagreen), and zebra skin were also in evidence. The bold use of stepped forms
and sweeping curves (unlike the sinuous, natural curves of the Art Nouveau),[13]
[23] chevron patterns, and the sunburst motif are typical of Art Deco. Some of
these motifs were ubiquitous — for example, sunburst motifs were used in such
varied contexts as ladies' shoes, radiator grilles, the auditorium of the
Radio City Music Hall, and the spire of the Chrysler Building.
Terracotta sunburst design in
gold behind sky blue and deep The Art Deco spire of the
blue above the front doors of Chrysler Building in New York,
the Eastern Columbia Building built 1928–1930
in Los Angeles
City Hall of Buffalo, New York, an Art Deco building.
 MODERNISM

Modern architecture is characterized by simplification of form and

creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. The first
variants were conceived early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was
adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, however
very few "Modern buildings" were built in the first half of the century. It
gained popularity after the Second World War and became the dominant
architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for three decades,
covering practically most of the Cold War era.
 MODERNISM

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural
tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used
materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors
and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most
evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include
the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard
Robertson), the Seagram Building and the Toronto-Dominion Centre (Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill).
 Marina City (left) and IBM Plaza (right) in Chicago.
 POST MODERNISM
Postmodern architecture was an international style whose first examples are generally cited as being
from the 1950s, but which did not become a movement until the late 1970s[1] and continues to influence
present-day architecture. Postmodernity in architecture is generally thought to be heralded by the return of
"wit, ornament and reference" to architecture in response to the formalism of the International Style of
modernism. As with many cultural movements, some of postmodernism's most pronounced and visible
ideas can be seen in architecture. The functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the modernist
movement are replaced by unapologetically diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own
sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound.
One popular building style of postmodernist style architecture is the use of pent roofing in buildings,
where roofs are slanted at an even angle from one wall to the other. Peaked roofing however, as seen on
most traditional single-family homes, is an example of Modernist Architecture.
 POST MODERN ARCITECTURE

Postmodern architecture has also been described as "neo-eclectic", where

reference and ornament have returned to the facade, replacing the
aggressively unornamented modern styles. This eclecticism is often
combined with the use of non-orthogonal angles and unusual surfaces, most
famously in the State Gallery of Stuttgart (New wing of the Staatsgalerie
Stuttgart) and the Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore. The Scottish Parliament
buildings in Edinburgh have also been cited as being of postmodern vogue.
Bank of America Center in Houston 1000 de La Gauchetière, in
by John Burgee and Philip Johnson. Montréal, with ornamented and
It combines architecture elements strongly defined top, middle and
of pre-WWII skyscrapers with bottom. Contrast with the
elements of modern aesthetics.
modernist Seagram Building.
Esplanade of Europe by Ricardo Bofill, Montpellier (1978-
2000).
 BAUHOUS ARCHETECTURE

A school of design established in Weimar, Germany, by Walter Gropius in 1919.

The term became virtually synonymous with modern teaching methods in
architecture and the applied arts, and with a functional aesthetic for the industrial
age; often characterized by emphasis on functional design, the use of a repetitive
interval between members of the framework of a building, and the maintenance of
purely geometric forms. Often, major building components such as bays, doors,
and windows are placed to coincide with this repetitive interval, although the
building itself may be asymmetrical.
Typography by
The Bauhaus
Herbert Bayer above
the entrance to the
workshop block of
the Bauhaus,
Dessau, 2005
 DECONSTRUCTIVISM

Deconstructivism in architecture, also called deconstruction, is a

development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is
characterized by ideas of fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of
a structure's surface or skin, non-rectilinear shapes which serve to distort
and dislocate some of the elements of architecture, such as structure and
envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many
deconstructivist "styles" is characterized by a stimulating unpredictability
and a controlled chaos.
 DECONSTRUCTIVISM
Originally, some of the architects known as Deconstructivists were influenced by the ideas of the
French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Eisenman developed a personal relationship with Derrida, but
even so his approach to architectural design was developed long before he became a Deconstructivist.
For him Deconstructivism should be considered an extension of his interest in radical formalism.
Some practitioners of deconstructivism were also influenced by the formal experimentation and
geometric imbalances of Russian constructivism. There are additional references in deconstructivism
to 20th-century movements: the modernism/postmodernism interplay, expressionism, cubism,
minimalism and contemporary art. The attempt in deconstructivism throughout is to move
architecture away from what its practitioners see as the constricting 'rules' of modernism such as "
form follows function," "purity of form," and "truth to materials."
Libeskind's
Dancing House in Prague
Imperial War Museum
North by Vlado Milunić and
in Manchester Frank Gehry
comprises three
apparently intersecting
curved volumes.
The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank
Gehry, on the Nervión River in downtown
Bilbao, Spain.
Turning Torso in Malmo by
Santiago Calatrava.
 A RT S A N D C R A F T S M O V E M E N T

The Arts and Crafts Movement was an international design movement

that originated in Britain and flourished between 1880 and 1910. It was
instigated by the artist and writer William Morris (1834–1896) in the
1860s and was inspired by the writings of John Ruskin (1819–1900). It
influenced architecture, domestic design and the decorative arts, using
simple forms and a medieval style of decoration. It advocated truth to
materials, traditional craftsmanship and economic reform.
The "Prairie School" of Frank Lloyd Wright,
George Washington Maher and other architects in Chicago, the
Country Day School movement, the bungalow and Ultimate bungalow
style of houses popularized by Greene and Greene, Julia Morgan, and
Bernard Maybeck are some examples of the American Arts and Crafts
and American Craftsman Movement in architecture. Restored and
landmark protected examples are still present in America, especially in
Berkeley and Pasadena, California, and the sections of other towns
originally developed in the era and escaping post-war urban renewal.
 Interior of Standen, a
The Oregon Public Library house in Sussex designed
in Oregon, Illinois, U.S. by by Philip Webb in 1891. It
Pond and Pond, an example was inspired by local
of Arts and Crafts building buildings and used local
in a Carnegie Library. materials. Many of the
furnishings are by
Morris & Co
 B E A U X A RT S A R C H I T E C T U R E

Beaux-Arts architecture[1] denotes the academic neoclassical architectural style that was
taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style "Beaux Arts" is above all the
cumulative product of two and a half centuries of instruction under the authority, first of the
Académie royale d'architecture, then, following the Revolution, of the Architecture section of
the Académie des Beaux-Arts. The organization under the Ancien Régime of the competition
for the Grand Prix de Rome in architecture, offering a chance to study in Rome, imprinted its
codes and aesthetic on the course of instruction, which culminated during the Second Empire
(1850-1870) and the Third Republic that followed. The style of instruction that produced
Beaux-Arts architecture continued without a major renovation until 1968.
 B E A U X - A RT S A R C H I T E C T U R E

The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced US architecture in the

period 1880–1920.[3] Other European architects of the period 1860–
1914 tended to gravitate towards their own national academic
centers rather than fixating on Paris. British architects of Imperial
classicism, in a development culminating in Sir Edwin Lutyens's
New Delhi government buildings, followed a somewhat more
independent course, owing to the cultural politics of the late 19th
century.
 CHARACTERISTICS
Flat roof
Rusticated and raised first story. Hierarchy of spaces, from "noble spaces"—grand entrances and staircases— to utilitarian ones
Arched windows
Arched and pedimented doors
Classical details  : references to a synthesis of historicist styles and a tendency to eclecticism; fluently in a number of "manners".
Symmetry
Statuary , sculpture (bas-relief panels, figural sculptures, sculptural groups), murals, mosaics, and other artwork, all coordinated
themed to assert the identity of the building
Classical architectural details]: balustrades, pilasters, garlands, cartouches, with a prominent display of richly detailed clasps
(agrafes) brackets and supporting consoles
Subtle polychromy
 The last major American
building constructed in the
Beaux-Arts style, the
Alternating male
San Francisco War Memorial
and female Opera House
mascarons decorate , completed 1932
keystones on the
San Francisco City
Hall
 Beaux-Arts building
Palais Garnier (opened decoration presenting images
1875) is a cornerpiece of of the Roman goddesses
Beaux Arts Pomona and Diana. Note the
naturalism of the postures and
the rustication of the
stonework.
 BRUTALISM

Brutalist architecture is a style of architecture which flourished from the 1950s to

the mid 1970s, spawned from the modernist architectural movement.The English
architects Alison and Peter Smithson coined the term in 1954, from the French béton
brut, or "raw concrete," a phrase used by Le Corbusier to describe the poured board-
marked concrete with which he constructed many of his post-WWII buildings. The
term gained wide currency when the British architectural critic Reyner Banham used
it in the title of his 1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to
characterize a by then established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in
Europe.
 BRUTALISM
Brutalist buildings usually are formed with striking repetitive angular geometries, and, where
concrete is used, often revealing the texture of the wooden forms used for the in-situ casting.
Although concrete is the material most widely associated with Brutalist architecture, not all Brutalist
buildings are formed from concrete. Instead, a building may achieve its Brutalist quality through a
rough, blocky appearance, and the expression of its structural materials, forms, and (in some cases)
services on its exterior. For example, many of Alison and Peter Smithson's private houses are built
from brick. Brutalist building materials also include brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone, and gabion
(also known as trapion). Conversely, not all buildings exhibiting an exposed concrete exterior can be
considered Brutalist, and may belong to one of a range of architectural styles including
Constructivism, International Style, Expressionism, Postmodernism, and Deconstructivism.
 Boston City Hall, part of
Government Center, Boston, Massach
usetts

(Gerhardt Kallmann and N. Michael

McKinnell, 1969)
Another common theme in Brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's
functions—ranging from their structure and services to their human use—in the
exterior of the building. In the Boston City Hall (illustration right), designed in
1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the building indicate the
special nature of the rooms behind those walls, such as the mayor's office or the
city council chambers. From another perspective, the design of the Hunstanton
School included placing the facility's water tank, normally a hidden service
feature, in a prominent, visible tower.
Brutalism as an architectural philosophy, rather than a style, was often also
associated with a socialist utopian ideology, which tended to be supported by its
designers, especially Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of the style. Critics
argue that this abstract nature of Brutalism makes the style unfriendly and
uncommunicative, instead of being integrating and protective, as its proponents
intended. Brutalism also is criticised as disregarding the social, historic, and
architectural environment of its surroundings, making the introduction of such
structures in existing developed areas appear starkly out of place and alien. The
failure of positive communities to form early on in some Brutalist structures,
possibly due to the larger processes of urban decay that set in after World War II
(especially in the United Kingdom), led to the combined unpopularity of both the
ideology and the architectural style.
 The Brutalist Roger
J. Edgar Hoover Building in Stevens Building at the
Washington, D.C. University of Leeds is
the centre piece to a
large complex of
Brutalist buildings
connected by skyways.
 CONCEPTUAL ARCHITECTURE

Conceptual architecture is a term used to describe certain buildings and practices that make use of conceptualism in
architecture. Conceptual architecture is characterized by an introduction of ideas or concepts from outside of architecture
often as a means of expanding the discipline of architecture. This produces an essentially different kind of building than one
produced by the widely held 'architect as a master-builder' model, in which craft and construction are the guiding principles.
The finished building as product is less important in conceptual architecture, than the ideas guiding them, ideas represented
primarily by texts, diagrams, or art installations. Architects that work in this vein are Diller + Scofidio, Bernard Tschumi,
Peter Eisenman and Rem Koolhaas.
Conceptual architecture was studied in the essay, Notes on Conceptual Architecture: Towards a Definition by Peter
Eisenman in 1970, and again by the Harvard Design Magazine in Fall of 2003 and Winter 2004, by a series of articles under
the heading Architecture as Conceptual Art. But the understanding of design as a construction of a concept was understood
by many modernist architects as well. To quote Louis Kahn on Frank Lloyd Wright:
It doesn't work, it doesn't have to work. Wright had the shape conceived long before he knew what was going into it. I claim
that is where architecture starts, with the concept.
 CONTEXTUALISM

In architectural theory, contextualism is a theory of design

wherein modern building types are harmonized with urban forms
usual to a traditional city.
Contextualism showing respect for historic environment began
to dictate its shaping techniques. Most vividly this became
apparent in reconstruction of the historic center of the city.
 ARQUITECTONICA
Arquitectonica is an international architecture, interior design and planning corporation
headquartered in Miami, Florida, United States with offices in 9 other cities. [1] Arquitectonica began
in 1977 as an experimental studio founded by Bernardo Fort-Brescia, Laurinda Hope Spear,
Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Hervin Romney.[citation needed]
Today the firm continues to be led by Bernardo Fort-Brescia and Laurinda Hope Spear, and has
designed such famous buildings as the Banco de Credito Headquarters, Lima (1988),
Atlantis Condominium, the Pink House, and the American Airlines Arena in Miami and the Westin
Hotel and entertainment complex in New York, amongst many others. [2] Their global headquarters
are at 801 Brickell Avenue in the Brickell Financial District of Miami, with regional offices in New
York City, Los Angeles, Madrid, Paris, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Manila, Dubai, Sao Paulo and Lima.
 Westin Times
Square Hotel
American Airlines Aren in New York
a
in Miami

The Lima
Marriott Hotel is
one of the many
projects the firm
has in Peru.
 FORMALISM

As the name suggests, Formalism emphasizes form. The architect is

interested in visual relationships between the building parts and the
work as a whole. Shape, often on a monumental scale, is the focus of
attention. Lines and rigid geometric shapes predominate in Formalist
architecture. You will find Formalism in many Modernist buildings,
especially in Bauhaus and International Style architecture. Architect
I.M. Pei has often been praised for the "elegant formalism" of his works.
The Bank of China
Tower, 1990, by Pritzker
Prize-winning architect
Ieoh Ming Pei
 FUTURIST STYLE

Futurist architecture (or Futurism) began as an early-20th century form of

architecture characterized by anti-historicism and long horizontal lines suggesting
speed, motion and urgency. Technology and even violence were among the themes of
the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti,
who produced its first manifesto, the Manifesto of Futurism in 1909. The movement
attracted not only poets, musicians, and artists (such as Umberto Boccioni, Giacomo
Balla, Fortunato Depero, and Enrico Prampolini) but also a number of architects. The
latter group included Antonio Sant'Elia, who, though he built little, translated the
Futurist vision into bold urban form
Ferrohouse in Zurich ( Cathedral, Brasilia (
Justus Dahinden, 1970) Oscar Niemeyer, 1960)
 FUNCTIONALISM
Functionalism, in architecture, is the principle that architects should design a building based on
the purpose of that building. This statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter
of confusion and controversy within the profession, particularly in regard to modern architecture.
The place of functionalism in building can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, where 'utilitas'
(variously translated as 'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside 'venustas'
(beauty) and 'firmitas' (firmness) as one of three classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views
were typical of some gothic revival architects, in particular Augustus Welby Pugin wrote that
«there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience,
construction, or propriety» and «all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential
construction of the building»
 The tower of the Helsinki
Olympic Stadium (Y.
Lindegren & T. Jäntti, built in
1934-38)

 The debate about functionalism and aesthetics is

often framed as a mutually exclusive choice, when in fact there are
architects, like Will Bruder, James Polshek and Ken Yeang, who
attempt to satisfy all three Vitruvian goals.
VISIONARY ARCHITECTURE

Visionary architecture is the name given to architecture which exists

only on paper or which has visionary qualities. Étienne-Louis Boullée,
Claude Nicolas Ledoux and Jean-Jacques Lequeu are three of the earliest
examples of the discipline. But the work of Giovanni Battista Piranesi,
Antonio Sant'Elia and Buckminster Fuller is also included. In the latter
half of the 20th century, there were architectural design movements such
as Archigram, Archizoom and Superstudio.
Milan, the Sempione Axis
with the 1991 IDC project.
THE END