TRANSPORT PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION

TRANSPORT is a system to deliver properties from one location to the other.

TRANSPORT PROSESSES is a study of processes transfers properties from
one point to the other in the environment and condition of the system.

Rate of Transfer is amount of properties is delivering for units of time:

number per second, tan per second, mole per second.

Driving Force is a factor that will make the processes transfer occur
Resistance is a factor that will be slowing down the process to transfer the
properties.

INTRODUCTION

Basic equation of transport processes

Driving Force

Rate of transfer =

Engineering property
Heat
Mass
Momentum

Resistance

INTRODUCTION

Heat Transfer
Rate of transfer : Heat Flux (J/m 2.s)
Heat Rate (J/s)
Driving Force: Temperature Different
T (K or oC)
Resistance: Thermal Resistance
Fouriers law:
Rate

q
dT

dx
A
k

Driving Force

Resistance

INTRODUCTION

Mass Transfer
Rate of transfer : mass Flux (mole/m 2.s)
mass Rate (mole/s)
Driving Force: Concentration Different
CA (mole/m3)
Resistance: Mass Resistance
Ficks Law:
Rate

JA
dc A
dx
A
DAB

Driving Force
Resistance

INTRODUCTION

Momentum Transfer

Rate of transfer : momentum Flux

(yxatauF/A)kg/m.s2

Driving Force: Velocity (m/s)

Resistance: Momentum Resistance
Newtons law:
Rate

Driving Force
F
dUx
yx dy
A

Resistance

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

Current(I)

Voltage(V )
Re sistance(R)

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
SERIES:
I1 I2 I3
VJ V1 V2 V3
RJ R1 R2 R3

PARALLEL
IJ I1 I2 I3
V1 V2 V3
1
1
1
1

RJ R1 R2 R3

I1

I2

R2

R1
V1

V2
I1

R1
V1

I1

R1
V1

I1

R1
V1

I3

R3
V3

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

x3

x1 x2
100C

kA

kB

kC

q1

100C=Ti

20C

q2
R1

x1
R1
kA

T1

q3
R2

x 2
R2
kB

T2

R3

T0=20C

x3
R3
kC

ELECTRICAL ANALOGY

RJ
Ti=100C

To=20C

Ti To Ti T1 T1 T2 T2 To
q

RJ
R1
R2
R3

x1 x 2 x3
RJ

kA
kB
kC

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is a study of the exchange of thermal energy

through a body or between bodies which occurs when there

is a temperature difference
The rate of heat transfer is measured in watts (W)
The heat flux, or the rate of heat transfer per unit area, is
measured in watts per area (W/m2), and uses q" for the
symbol.
Table 1. Units and Conversion Factors for Heat Measurements
SI Units
Thermal Energy (Q)
Heat Transfer Rate (q)
Heat Flux (q")

1 J
1 J/s or 1 W
1 W/m2 0.3171

English Units
9.478710-4 Btu
3.4123 Btu/h
Btu/h ft2

HEAT TRANSFER
3 Modes of heat transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Any energy exchange between bodies occurs through one of these modes
or a combination of them

Conduction is the transfer of heat through solids or stationery fluids

Convection uses the movement of fluids to transfer heat
Radiation does not require a medium for transferring heat; this mode

uses the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object for exchanging

heat

CONDUCTION
Two mechanisms explain how heat is transferred by conduction:
Free electron diffusion (metals)
Particle OR Molecular collision OR Molecular Vibration
Heat energy

CONDUCTION
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states
that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to
the area at right angles, to that gradient
Conductivity
Heat Transfer rate

Cross section area

Temperature gradient

qx
dT
k
A
dx

distance

A =A(x)
q x 0

T or q
specified
q x1

x = x0

x = x1

CONDUCTION: Energy Balance

RECTANGULAR SYSTEM or CARTESIAN COORDINATE

qz |z z

q y|y
q x|x x

q x|x
z

q x|x qy|y q z|z

q y|y y
y

qz |z

T
V c p
t

In + Generation = Out + Consumption

.

Vg

q x|x x qy|y y q z|z z

CONDUCTION: Energy Balance

Fouriers Law :
T
q x|x k(y.z )
x
q x|x x

So,

T
k(y.z )
x

q x|x qx| x x

Heat generation;

x x

T
k
x

(y.z.x)g

x x

T
x

x x

CONDUCTION: Energy Balance

Cartesian coordinates ;

2T 2T 2T
g
T

2 2

2
y
z c p t
x
- thermal diffusivity
Cylindrical coordinates:

1 T
1 2T 2T g 1 T
r 2 2 2
r r r r
z
k t
Spherical coordinates :

1 2 T
1

T
1
2T g 1 T
sin
2

2
2 r
2
2

r r
r r sin
r sin
k t

CONDUCTION: Thermal Conductivity

Material

Thermal conductivity, k, is
the property of a material
that indicates its ability to
conduct heat

Typical units are SI: W/(mK)

and English Unit: Btu.ft/(h.ft.oF)

Thermal conductivity of liquid

varies with temperature and
can be expressed as linear
variation

k a bT

Thermal conductivity
W/(mK)
Air
0.025
Wood
0.04 0.4
Alcohols and oils
0.1 - 0.21
Soil
0.15
Rubber
0.16
Epoxy (unfilled)
0.19
Epoxy (silica-filled)
0.30
Water (liquid)
0.6
Thermal grease
0.7 3
Glass
1.1
Ice
2
Sandstone
2.4
Stainless steel
15
Lead
35.3
Aluminium
237
Gold
318
Copper
401
Silver
429
Diamond
900 2320

CONDUCTION: case 1
One dimensional x, no heat generated and steady
state condition
Assumption: Uniform cross section area

Boundary Condition

x x1T = T1
x x 2 T = T2

T1
T2

A
R

x=x1

x= x2

CONDUCTION: case 1

dT
qx Ak
dx

Fouriers law:

qx

x1

dx Ak T dT
T2
1

qx (x1 x 2 ) Ak(T1 T2 )
(T1 T2 )
qx Ak
(x 2 x1 )

x2

Constant cross section area

Rate
watt

(T1 T2 )
qx
(x 2 x1)

Ak

Boundary Condition

x x1T = T1
x x 2 T = T2

Driving Force, K or oC
Resistance, k/watt

CONDUCTION: case 1
Temperature Profile
Energy balance equation for Cartesian coordinate

2T 2T 2T
g
T

2
2
2

c p t
0

Thermal diffusivity
c p

T
0
2
x
2

Steady state condition

T
0
t

m /s
2

d2T
0
2
dx

CONDUCTION: case 1

d dT
0

dx dx
1st integration

dT
d

dx

0dx

dT
c1
dx

2nd integration

Eq 1

dT c dx
1

Tx c1 x c 2

Eq2

CONDUCTION: case 1

Boundary Condition

BC1: x x1T = T1
BC2: x x 2 T = T2
Eq2+BC1
Eq2+BC2

T1 C1 ( x1 ) C2
T2 C1 ( x 2 ) C2

T2 T1 C1 (x 2 x1 ) C2 C2

T2 T1
T2
(x1 ) C2
x 2 x1

T2 T1
C1
x 2 x1
T2 T1
C2 T1
x1
x 2 x1

CONDUCTION: case 1
Eq2

Tx c1 x c 2
T2 T1
C2 T1
x1
x 2 x1

T2 T1
C1
x 2 x1

Temperature Profile:

T1

T2 T1
Tx
(x x1 ) T1
x 2 x1
y mx c

Linear eq

T2
x1

x2

CONDUCTION: Work Example case 1

Consider a slab of thickness L=25 mm. One surface
is kept at 100 C and the other surface at 0 C.
Determine the heat flux across this slab is made
from pure copper (k = 22.7 W/m.K)

CONDUCTION: case 2
One dimensional-x, steady state with heat generation
Assumption:
Uniform cross section area, A

2L

A
qx

T1

T1
g w/m

x=0

qx

qx
qx

x
x=L

2L

CONDUCTION: case 2
3 dimensional heat balance:

2T 2T 2T
g
T

2 2

2
y
z c p t
x
k

c p

k
c p

T
g

0
2
x c p
2

T g

2
x
k
2

d 2T
g

2
dx
k

Steady state

T
0
t

CONDUCTION: case 2
Boundary condition
BC1.
BC2.

dT
x o
=0
dx
x LT = T1

1st integration:

For maximum and

minimum for x-y
curve, dx/dy = 0

d 2T
g

2
dx
k
d dT
g

dx dx
k
g
dT

dx

k
dx

dT
g
x c1
dx
k

Eq3

CONDUCTION: case 2
2nd integration

dT

k 1 dx

g 2
Tx
x c1 x c2
2k
dT
g
x c1
dx
k

g
0 0 c1
k

c1 o

xo

Eq4

dT
=0
dx

CONDUCTION: case 2
Eq4 + BC2

g 2
Tx x c1 x c 2
2k
T1

x LTx = T1

g 2
L 0 L c2
2k

g 2
c2
L T1
2k
Temp. Profile:

g 2
Tx
L x 2 T1
2k

CONDUCTION: case 2
Heat transfer rate in the system:
Fouriers law in x direction ;
Integral equation 1;

dT
qx Ak
dx

dT
g
x c1
dx
k

dT
g
x
dx
k

q x Ak
Volume in m3

q x A.x.g

q x V .g

and

c1 o

CONDUCTION: case 3
Composite wall: consist of more than one layer.
1 cm

4 cm

10 cm

Inside furnace
Ti=800oC
hi = 270 W/m2.K

1. Developed heat
circuit

Out side, ambient

To=30oC
ho = 80 W/m2.K

2. Calculate heat

resistance for each

layer

3. Determine the

overall coefficient

4. Estimate heat lost

Fireclay, k=1.47 W/m.K
Steel, k=45 W/m.K

per day

Glass wool, k=0.0414 W/m.K

5. Estimate outer and

inner surface
temperature of the
furnace

CONDUCTION: case 3
Assumption: uniform cross section area, Basis: A = 1 m2
Heat circuit:

No. of resistance = 5

q1

800oC=Ti

q2
R1

T1

To =30oC

q3
R2

T2

R3

T3

R4

T4

RJ
Ti=800oC

To=30oC

R5

CONDUCTION: case 3, Overall coefficient

Calculate:

R1 = .

R3 = .

R2 = .

R4 = .

R5 = .

Ohm Law for series, RJ = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 +R5

Overall coefficient, U:

Q = U.A.T

Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

T T
Q

1
RJ
U.A

Surface area

1
RJ
U.A

CONDUCTION: Work Example

CONDUCTION: Work Example

Composite wall consisting of three different layers in perfect
thermal contact is shown in the sketch below. The outer surfaces
to the left and right are kept at temperature T 1 = 400 oC and T2
= 50 oC, respectively. The thickness Li and the thermal
conductivity ki for i = 1, 2, 3 of each layer are also specified.
Determine the heat transfer rate per square meter across the
composite layer by assuming one dimensional heat flow.

k1 = 20
W/m2.K

k2 =
50
W/m2.K

5 cm

10 cm

k3 = 100 W/m2.K

15 cm

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A Thermopane window consists of two 6 mm thick glasses
separated by stagnant air space of thickness 6 mm. The
thermal conductivity of the glass is kg = 0.78 W/m.K, and
that of air can be taken as ka = 0.025 W/m.K. the
convective heat transfer coefficients for the inside and
outside air are hi = 10 and ho = 60 W/m2.K. determine the
rate of heat loss per square meter of the glass surface for
a temperature difference of 40 oC between the inside and
outside air. Compare this result with the heat loss if the
window had a single glass of thickness L = 6 mm only instead
of the Thermopane.

CONDUCTION: case 4, Cylinder

o Fouriers law for cylindrical system:

dT
qr Ak
dr
o Energy balance equation;

1 T
1 2T 2T g 1 T
r r r r r 2 2 z 2 k t
o Cross section area or surface area:

A 2rL
Area increased with radius

r1

r2
T2

CONDUCTION: case 4, Hollow Cylinder

System: One dimensional - r, no heat generation, steady state
Boundary condition:
BC1

r = r1

T = T1

BC2

r = r2

T = T2

Energy balance equation;

1 T
1 2T 2T g
1 T

r
2
r r r
r 2
z 2
k t

T
r 0
r r

d dT
r 0
dr dr

CONDUCTION: case 4
dT c1

dr r

First integration:

EQ1

Tr c1 ln r c 2

Second integration:

dT 1 T2 T1

dr r ln r2
r1

So, temperature distribution:

c1

T2 T1
r
ln 2
r1

T2 T1
c2 T1
ln r1
r2
ln
r1

T2 T1
Tr
(ln r ln r1 ) T1
r2
ln
r1

CONDUCTION: case 4
Rate of heat transfer across the cylinder:

dT
qr Ak
dr
A 2rL

EQ1

dT 1 T2 T1

dr r ln r2
r1

T1 T2
qr
r2
ln
r1
2Lk

1 T2 T1
qr (2rL)k
r ln r2
r1
rearrange

Driving force

Heat resistance

CONDUCTION: case 5, Hollow sphere

System: one dimensional - r, no heat generated, steady state condition

Fouriers law

dT
qr Ak
dr

Energy balance for spherical system

1 2 T
1

T
1
2T g 1 T
sin

r 2
r 2 r
r r sin
r 2 sin 2 2 k t

2 T
r
0
r r

d 2 dT
r
0
dr dr

CONDUCTION: case 5
Boundary condition:
BC1 r = r1
BC2 r = r2

T = T1
T = T2

T2

T1
r1

r2

+
Integrate the differential equation + Furriers law

T T
1
qr 4 r 2 k 2 1 2
r 1 1
r2 r1

T1 T2
qr
1 1

r1 r2
4 k

Heat
Resistance

CONDUCTION: Work Example

Summary:
Rate of Heat Transfer =

(T1 - T2 )
R

Resistance:

Plate

(x 2 x1 )
Ak
Overall Coefficient, U :

Cylinder

Sphere

r2
r1
2Lk

1 1

r1 r2
4 k

ln

1
RJ
U.A

CONDUCTION: Critical Thickness of Insulation

r2

Insulation

T1
To

r1

ho

2L T1 To

T2

dq 2L T1 To 1 r2 k 1 r22 ho

2
dr
ln r2 r1
1

k
r
h
2 o

ln r2 r1
1

k
r
h
2 o

r2 cr

ho

CONDUCTION: Work Example

The diagram shows a conical section fabricated from pyroceram. It is
of circular cross section with the diameter D = ax, where a = 0.25.
The small end is at x1 = 50 mm and the large end at x2 = 250 mm. the
end temperatures are T1 = 400 K and T2 = 600 K, while the lateral
surface is well insulated.
a.
b.

Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) is

symbolic form, assuming one dimensional condition. Sketch the
temperature distribution
Calculate the heat rate, q, through the cone.

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A gas at 450 K is flowing inside a 2 in steel pipe,
schedule 40. The pipe is insulated with 51 mm a lagging
having a mean k=0.0623 W/m.K. The convective heat
transfer coefficient of the gas inside the pipe is 30.7
W/m2.K and the convective coefficient on the outside of
the lagging is 10.8 W/m2.K. The air is at a temperature
of 300K.

a. Calculate the heat loss per unit length of 1 m of pipe

using resistances

b. Calculate the overall coefficient.

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A cylindrical insulation of a steam pipe has
inside radius ri = 6 cm, outside radius ro = 8
cm, and a thermal conductivity k = 0.5
W/m.K. The inside surface of the insulation
is at a temperature Ti = 430 C, and the
outside surface temperature at T0 = 30 C.
Determine the heat lost per 1-m length of
this insulation.

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A certain building wall consists of 6.0 in of
concrete [k = 1.2 W/m. C], 2.0 in of fiberglass
insulation, and 8 in of gypsum board [k = 0.05
W/m - C]. The inside and outside convection
coefficients are 2.0 and 7.0 Btu/h - ft2 - F,
respectively. The outside air temperature is
20F, and the inside temperature is 72F.
Calculate the overall heat-transfer coefficient
for the wall, the R value, and the heat loss per
unit area.

CONDUCTION: Work Example

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A 3 mm diameter chrome-nickel wire of
thermal conductivity k = 20 W/m.K is
heated electrically by the passing of the
electric current which generates heat
within the wire at a constant rate of go =
109 W/m3. If the outer surface of wire is
maintain at 100 C, determine the centre
temperature of the wire

CONDUCTION: Work Example

CONDUCTION: Work Example

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Extended surfaces (fins) give added surface area that

increases convection/radiation heat transfer

Heat conducts out the extended surface
Convects or radiates to the surroundings

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Example usage of extended surface in industry or daily life.
Heat Exchangers - gas industry
Car radiators

Fins very thin

Tube Fin
Heat Exchangers

Car radiators

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Type of fine:

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

qc
t

To

qx x x

q
x x
x

x
L

Energy balance for element x

qx x qx x x qc
kA

kA

dT
dT
kA
dx x
dx

dT
dx

kA
x x

x x

h(P.x)(T T )

dT
h(P.x)(T T )
dx x

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

kA

dT
dx

x approach to 0

Define,

dT

dx x
x x
h(P)(T T )
x

d 2T hP

(T T ) 0
2
dx
kA

(T T )

d 2 hP

0
2
dx
kA

Assume that no heat loss from the tip of the fine or apply the
adiabatic condition at the tip.

condition become;
Boundary

x=0
x=L

o (To T )
d
dx

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Solve the differential equation;

coshm L x

o
cosh mL

Where;

Temperature distribution along the fin:

(Tx T ) coshmL x

(To T )
cosh mL
Fouriers law:

q kA

dT
dx

Assume that the

temperature is uniform at
any point in the cross
section

x L

So, amount of heat released from the fin:

m hP /kA

q hPkA

To T TanhmL

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

With convection

LC=L+t/2
insulation

Original fin length L

Original Fin

t/2

Modified fin - adiabatic at the tip

If the heat loss through the tip, so the of fin in the equation will be equal to L+t/2

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface; long fin

Example of temperature
distribution along the long fin with
constant cross section area.
Temperature at the tip is
constant at TL
Boundary condition;
x=xo
T=Tb
x=L
T=TL

Tx T (Tb T )e

hp
kA c

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface; Efficiency

fin

Actual heat transfer rate from fin

Maximum heat transfer from fin if the entire fin
were at base temperature
.

Qmax hA f Tb T
.

Q f f Qmax f A f Tb T
Efficiency for adiabatic at the tip;

fin

Qf

Q f . max

hpkAc Tb T tanh mL tanh mL

hA f Tb T
aL

Efficiency for long fin

.

longfin

Qf
.

Q f . max

hpAc Tb T 1 kAc
1

hA f Tb T
L hp mL

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

There are two type of tube fin which normally used in gas heat
exchanger:
o Longitudinal or straight fins
o Circular or transverse fins

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Circular or transverse fins

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

Longitudinal or straight fins

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface

CONDUCTION: Work Example

CONDUCTION: Work Example

A 2-in.-OD stainless-steel tube has 16 longitudinal fins spaced
around its outside surface as shown. The fins are 1/16 in. thick and
extend 1 in. from the outside surface of the tube.
.
(a) If the outside surface of the tube wall is at 250F, the surrounding
air is at 80F, and the convective heat-transfer co-efficient is 8
Btu/hr ft2 F, determine the percent increase in heat transfer for
the finned pipe over that for the un-finned pipe.
(b) Determine the same information as in part (a) for values of h of
2, 5, 15, 50, and 100 Btu/hr ft2F. Plot the percent increase in q
versus h. What; ; conclusions can be reached concerning this
plot?

CONDUCTION: Extended Surface