CONCRETE

TECHNOLOGY

WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Workability is an important property of
concrete. Workability in simple terms
can be defined as the ease with which
the concrete can be mixed, transported,
placed and compacted. The workability
of concrete has also been defined as
the amount of work required to place
concrete and to compact it thoroughly
2

The workability is associated with the

following four concepts:
1.Ease of flow (internal friction)
2.Prevention of segregation
3.Prevention of harshness
4.Prevention of bleeding

Factors Affecting Workability

Method

and duration of transportation

Quantity and characteristics of
cementing materials
Aggregate grading, shape and surface
texture
Quantity and characteristics of chemical
admixtures
Amount of water
Amount of entrained air
Concrete & ambient air temperature
4

EASE OF FLOW (INTERNAL

FRICTION)
The ease with which the concrete
flows depends upon the internal
friction between the particles of
concrete. To improve workability,
therefore it is necessary to reduce the
internal friction. The internal friction
can be reduced by the lubrication of
the surface of aggregates. The
lubrication can be improved in two
ways:
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(a) By

increasing the quantity of water in a

concrete mix. Greater the quantity of water,
more area it can lubricate. But this method is
inefficient because it increases water-cement
ratio and thereby decreases the strength of
cement.
(b) The second way is to reduce the total
surface area of the aggregates by adopting
. coarse aggregate
coarse aggregate. But
should not be used too much otherwise
segregation will take place.
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1. Water content
Workability of concrete mix largely
depends upon its water content. With
the increases of water, the workability
also increases. But too much water
results into concrete of low strength
and poor durability.

2. Size of Aggregate
Workability increases with the increase in the size
of the aggregate. Large size particles provide less
surface area as compared to surface area given
by smaller size particles. Hence for same degree
of workability, less water is required for large size
aggregate. Lesser quantity of water used in large
size aggregate also reduces the quantity of
cement for given water-cement ratio and is
therefore economical. From practical point of
view, the maximum size of aggregate to be used
will depend upon the handling, mixing and
placing equipment, thickness of section and
quantity of reinforcement.
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effect of aggregate size

1
1
Consider a single aggregate the size of 1x1x1

Compute the surface area as

you break up the particles
block surface area = 0.5*0.5*6=1.5
block surface area = 1*1*6= 6

volume = 1 cubic in
surface area = 6 square inches

volume = 1 cubic in
surface area = 1.5*8= 12 square inches

Compute the surface area

surface area = 0.25*0.25*6*8*8=24

0.5 in

0.25 in

Larger particles, less surface area,

thicker coating, easy sliding of particles

Smaller particles, more surface area,

thinner coating, interlocking of particles

Effect of aggregate size

size

# of particles

volume

surface area

1"

1 cubic inch

6 square inches

.5"

1 cubic inch

12 square inches

0.25

64

1 cubic inch

24 square inches

0.125

512

1 cubic inch

48 square inches

3.Shape of Aggregate
The particle shape also effect the workability.
Workability increases with round and smooth
surface aggregates. Crushed or angular aggregates
has less workability because of higher and rough
surface area.
4. Grading of Aggregate
The grading of aggregate has a considerable effect
on workability of concrete. Grading is more
important when lean mixes of high workability are
required than rich mixes. For lean mixes, the
grading should be continuous, whereas for rich
mixes
the
grading
should
be
coarse.
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Angularity and surface

texture of aggregates

angular and rough

aggregate

smooth aggregate
river gravel

5. Porosity and Absorption of Aggregate.

Porous and non-saturated aggregate will require
more water than a non-porous and saturated
aggregate. For same degree or workability, the latter
will require less quantity of water.
6. Admixtures
Workability also increases with addition of
admixture such as air, entraining agents
which produce well dispersed air bubbles.

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7. Mixing Time
with the increases in mixing time
upto certain limit, workability
increases.
8. Temperature
The temperature at which the
concrete mix is prepared also effects
its workability. The slump of the
concrete mix decreases as the
temperature of the mix increases.

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SEGREGATION
The separation of coarse aggregate from
the concrete mix in plastic stage is called
segregation.
Concrete is not a homogenous material
but rather a mixture of materials of
different specific gravities. So there is
always a tendency for the coarser and
heavier particles to settle down and for
lighter materials to rise to the surface.
Segregation reduces the strength and
durability of concrete.
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 Segregation

refers to a separation of the

components of fresh concrete, resulting in a
non-uniform mix

The primary causes of

segregation are
differences in specific
gravity and size of
constituents of concrete.
Moreover, improper
mixing, improper placing
and improper
consolidation also lead
to segregation.

Sp.Gr.

Size

Cement 3-3.15 5-80 m

C.Agg.

2.4-2.8 5-40 mm

F.Agg.

2.4-2.8

< 5 mm

Causes of segregation. Segregation takes place

when:
(i) there is too much of water in the mix.
(ii) there are badly graded aggregates.
(iii) there are too much shocks to a concrete mix due
to transport over longer distances, discharge of
concrete from a considerable height (more than 1m) ,
Pumping of concrete.
(iv) leakage of mortar from formwork.
(v) concreting is done under-water.

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Prevention of segregation.
(i) The mix should be designed correctly
and minimum amount of water should be
used for mixing.
(ii) The height of free fall of concrete should
not exceed 1m in any case.
(iii) The air-entraining agents should be
used for reducing segregation as these
reduce the quantity of mixing water.
(iv) The concreting operations should be
supervised strictly.
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HARSHNESS
The concrete mix which does not give
smooth surface with a certain amount of
trowelling is known as harsh mix.
Causes of harshness.
(i) The cement mortar not sufficient to fill
the voids in the coarse aggregates.
(ii) The presence of excessive proportion of
one particle-size in an aggregate grading.
Prevention of harshness. Harshness can
be prevented if there is sufficient proportion
of mortar to fill the voids in coarse
aggregates.
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BLEEDING
The appearance of water along with some
particles of cement and very fine sand on the surface
of freshly placed concrete after compaction is called
bleeding. A good concrete should be free from
bleeding. The term water gain is also sometimes
used
instead
of
bleeding
when water rises to the surface, flow channels are
formed in concrete mass. Thus concrete with large
amount of bleeding are permeable. Due to bleeding
watery scum (water+ particles of fine sand and
cement) is formed on the concrete surface. This scum
layer is known as laitance. This layer should be
removed if a new concrete layer is to be placed over
the old layer.
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BLEEDING

Bleeding is the tendency of water to

rise to the surface of freshly placed
concrete.

It is caused by
the inability of
solid constituents
of the mix to hold
all of the mixing
water as they
settle down.
A special case of

Causes of bleeding.
(i) presence of excess water.
(ii) Deficiency of fine aggregate.
(iii) Too much finishing.
Prevention of bleeding. bleeding can be
prevented by:
(i) controlling the water- content ratio
(ii) providing finer grading of fine aggregates.
(iii) using finely ground cement.
(iv) controlling compaction.
(v) The air-entraining agents should be used to
prevent bleeding.
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Water accumulation on surface

Examine the concrete surface

MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY
The following are the methods Of
measurements of workability:
1. slump test
2. compacting factors test
3. vee-bee consistometer test

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Slump Test The slump test can be

performed in the laboratory or at the site of
work.
Apparatus. The slump test apparatus
consists of steel mould in the form of a
frustum of a cone. The internal dimensions of
a mould are:
(i) Bottom diameter =200mm
(ii) Top diameter=100mm
(iii) Height=300mm.
The bottom and top ends of the mould are
open. Thickness of the mould should not be
less than 1.6 mm. for tamping the wet
concrete, a tamping rod of steel (16mm in
diameter, 0.6m long) is used.

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Procedure. The following procedure is

adopted for determining the slump value
of concrete:
1. The internal
surface of the mould is thoroughly
cleaned and the mould is placed on a
smooth, horizontal, rigid and nonabsorbent surface.
2.The mould is held firmly in place by
standing on the foot pieces before the
concrete is filled in.
3. Concrete under test is filled in the
mould in four layers. Each layer is
tamped (25 times) with the help of steel
rod. The stroke should be uniformly
distributed.

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4. After the top layer has been rodded, the

concrete should be struck off level with a
trowel. Any mortar which has leaked out
between the base plate and the mould is
cleaned away.
5. The mould is then removed by raising it
slowly and carefully in vertical direction. On
the removal of mould, the concrete subside.
6. Slump is measured immediately by
determining the vertical distance between
the height of the mould and that of highest
point of the specimen being tested
7. If specimen collapses than test may be
repeated
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The slump which is the subsidence of the concrete

cone after the mould is lifted up can give the
following three results:
(a) True slump------ If the concrete subside evenly, it
is known as true slump.
(b) shear slump----- If one half of the concrete slides
down as soon as the mould is removed.
(c) collapse slump----- If the concrete slides down as
soon as the mould is removed , it is known as
collapse slump. It is very difficult to measure. It
occurs in very wet mixes.
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Degree of workability w.r.t. slump

value
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Slump value in mm
(compacting factor is
suitable)
25-75
50-100
100-150

Degree of
workability
Very
low
Low
Medium
High
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Slump Test is related with the ease with

which concrete flows during placement

36

10 cm

30 cm

20 cm

The slump cone is filled in 3 layers.

Every layer is evenly rodded 25
times.

Measure the slump by determining the vertical

difference between the top of the mold and the
displaced original center of the top surface of the

Table -2
Recommended slumps for placement in various
conditions

S.NO Slump in mm Degree of

Placing Conditions

workabilit
y
1.

(compacting
factor is
suitable)

Very low

(i)
(ii)

(iii)

Blinding concrete
Shallow sections
Pavements using pavers

Mass concrete
(ii)
Lightly reinforced
(iii) Floors
(iv) Canal linings
(v)
Strip footings
(i)

2.

25-75
Low

3.

50-100

(i)

Medium

(ii)

(iii)

4.

100-150

High

(i)

(ii)

Heavily reinforced sections in

slabs,beams,walls,columns
Pumped concrete
Slip form work
Trench fill
in-situ piling

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Sample collected

Cone Removed and Concrete

Allowed to Slump

Slump Cone Filled

Slump Measured

COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

This test was developed by Road Research
Laboratory . It is mainly used in laboratory to
determine workability of concrete.
Principle. The workability of concrete has also been
defined as the amount of work required to place the
concrete and to compact it thoroughly. It is not easy
to measure the amount of work required to fully
compact it. But it is simpler to apply a standard
amount of work to the concrete and to measure its
degree of compaction. Work is applied by dropping
the concrete through a standard height into a
cylindrical container. The compaction in the
cylindrical container is produced by the destruction
of kinetic energy of the falling concrete. The degree
of compaction is termed as compaction factor.

41

Apparatus. The apparatus used for this test . The apparatus

consists of two hoppers in line vertically above the cylindrical
container. The dimensions of the hoppers and cylinder are as
follows:
Upper hopper (A) :
(i) Top internal diameter =254mm
(ii) Bottom internal diameter =127mm
(iii) Internal height =239mm
Lower hopper (B):
(i) Top internal diameter =229mm
(ii) Bottom internal diameter =127mm
(iii) Internal height =229mm
Cylinder (C)
(i) Internal diameter =152mm
(ii) Internal height =305mm
Distance between bottom of upper hopper and top
of lower
hopper = 203 mm
Distance between bottom of lower hopper and top of
Cylinder

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Procedure.
The following procedure is adopted for performing
the compacting factor test.
1. The concrete sample is placed in the upper
hopper A.
2.Then the door of hopper A is opened. The
sample
drops into lower
hopper B filling it to overflowing.
3. The trap door of the lower hopper is then
opened and the sample falls into the cylinder which
is also filled to overflowing.
4. The surplus cement is removed from the top
of the cylinder with the help of a trowel.
5. The outside surface of cylinder is wiped and
cleaned.

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6. The cylinder is then weighed and it is recorded as weight of

partially compacted concrete.
7. The cylinder is again filled with concrete in layers not
exceeding 50 mm in thickness. Each layer is fully
compacted with tamping rod.
8.The cylinder is again weighed after wiping and cleaning the
outside surface of cylinder. This weight is recorded as the
weight of fully compacted concrete.
9. The compacting factor is then calculated from the formula:

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Compacting factor = wt of partially compacted

conc

wt of fully compacted

conc.

Degree of workability w.r.t. compacting factor

S.NO.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Compacting factor

0.75to 0.80
0.87
0.935
0.96

Degree of
workability
Very low
Low
Medium
High
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VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER TEST

The

name vee-bee is derived from

the initials of V. Bahrner of Sweden
who developed the test. Sometimes
this test is called V-B consist meter
test. Vee-bee is a good laboratory
test, particularly for very dry mixes.

46

Procedure. The following procedure is

adopted for performing the vee-bee
consistometer test.
1. Sheet metal cone is filled with
concrete.
2. The glass plate rider is then brought
into
position so that it is touching the top
of the
concrete.
3. The concrete cone is then subjected to
vibrating action by starting the

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4. The vibration is done until the

concrete surface becomes horizontal.
The time taken to attain horizontal
surface is noted. The time recorded
in seconds gives the degree of
workability.

Suitability. This method is suitable

for dry concrete having very low
workability.

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Degree of workability w.r.t. Vee-Bee

Seconds
S.NO. Time in
seconds
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

20-40
10-20
7-10
3-7
1-3

Degree of
workability
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very High
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DURABILITY
Durable concrete can be defined as one that is
designed, constructed and maintained to
perform
satisfactorily
in
the
expected
environment for the specified designedlife
Generally, concrete suffers from more than
one causesof deterioration, which is generally
seen in the form ofcracking, spalling, loss of
strength, etc. It is nowaccepted that the main
factors influencing the durability of concrete is
its impermeability to the ingress ofoxygen,
water, carbondioxide, chlorides,sulphates,
etc.
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FACTORS GOVERNING DURABILITY

Mix design

Structuraldesign

Reinforcement detailing

Concrete cover

Curing

supervision

Quality of material used

51

MIXING OF CONCRETE
Mixing time should be sufficient to
produce a uniform concrete. The time
of mixing depends on the type of
mixer and also to some extent on
properties of fresh concrete.
Undermixing non-homogeneity
Overmixing danger of water loss,
breakage of aggregate particles

CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
Inadequate
consolidation can result
in:
Honeycomb
Excessive amount of
entrapped air voids
(bugholes)
Sand streaks
Placement lines (Cold joints)

54

VIBRATION OF CONCRETE

The process of compacting concrete

consists essentially of the elimination
of entrapped air. This can be
achieved by:

Tamping or rodding the concrete

Use of vibrators

VIBRATORS
Internal vibrator: The poker is
immersed into concrete to compact
it. The poker is easily removed from
point to point.
External vibrators: External vibrators
clamp direct to the formwork
requiring strong, rigid forms.

Internal Vibration
Vibrator
d
R

1 R

Radius of Action

Systematic Vibration
CORRECT
Vertical penetration a few
inches into previous lift (which
should not yet be rigid) of
systematic regular intervals will
give adequate consolidation

INCORRECT
Haphazard random penetration
of the vibrator at all angles and
spacings without sufficient
depth will not assure intimate
combination of the two layers

CURING OF CONCRETE

The primary objective of curing is to keep

concrete saturated or as nearly saturated
as possible.
Hydration reactions
can take place in
only saturated water
filled capillaries.

Curing Methods
1.

Methods which supply additional

water to the surface of concrete
during early hardening stages.

Using wet covers

Sprinkling
Ponding

Curing Methods
2.

Methods that prevent loss of moisture

from concrete by sealing the surface.

Water proof plastics

Use liquid membrane-forming
compounds
Forms left in place

PROPERTIES OF
HARDENED CONCRETE

The principal properties of hardened

concrete which are of practical importance
can be listed as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Strength
Permeability & durability
Shrinkage & creep deformations
Response to temperature variations

Of these compressive strength is the most

important property of concrete. Because;

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
1.
2.
3.

Concrete is used for compressive loads

Compressive strength is easily obtained
It is a good measure of all the other
properties.

63

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Cubic:

15x15x15 cm
Cubic specimens are crushed after rotating
them 90 to decrease the amount of
friction caused by the rough finishing.
Cylinder: h/D=2 with h=15
To decrease the amount of friction,
capping of the rough casting surface is
performed.

65

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Cubic specimens
without capping

Cylindrical
specimens
with capping

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN
CONCRETE
ult

(40-50%)
ult

ult

- relationship
for concrete is
nonlinear.
However,
specially for
cylindrical
specimens with
h/D=2, it can be
assumed as
linear upto 40-

PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE

Permeability is important because:

1. The penetration of some aggresive solution may
result in leaching out of Ca(OH) 2 which adversely
affects the durability of concrete.
2. In R/C ingress of moisture of air into concrete
causes corrosion of reinforcement and results in
the volume expansion of steel bars, consequently
causing cracks & spalling of concrete cover.
3. The moisture penetration depends on
permeability & if concrete becomes saturated it is
more liable to frost-action.
4. In some structural members permeability itself is
of importance, such as, dams, water retaining
tanks.

PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE

The permeability of concrete is controlled

by capillary pores. The permeability
depends mostly on w/c, age, degree of
hydration.
In general the higher the strength of
cement paste, the higher is the durability
& the lower is the permeability.