TCP/IP Networking

Basics
 Addressing and Name Resolution

IP Addressing
 An IP address is 32 bits in size
 Every IP address is grouped into four 8-bit octets
 Octets are separated by decimal points
 Valid octet numbers range from 0 to 255 and represent a
binary address
 Addressing and Name Resolution

IP Addressing (cont.)

 Each address consists of two parts: network and host
 The network portion of an address indicates whether the
device belongs to a Class A, B, C, D, or E network
 Some octet number are reserved for special functions
 Addressing and Name Resolution

Static address
 IP address that is manually assigned to a device
Dynamic address
 IPaddress that is assigned to a device through
DHCP
Dotted decimal notation
 “Shorthand” convention used to represent IP
addresses and make them more easily readable
by people
 Network Classes

Figure 1: IP addresses and their classes

 Network Classes

TABLE 1 Three commonly used classes of TCP/IP networks

 Multicasting
 Allows one device to send data to a specific group of devices
(not the entire network segment)
 New addressing scheme is being developed
 IP version 6 (IPV6) will incorporate this new scheme
 Subnetting

Process of subdividing a single class of network into

multiple, smaller networks

Figure 2: IP address before and after subnets

 Subnetting

Extended network prefix

 The combination of an address’s network and subnet
information
Subnet mask
 Special 32-bit number that, when combined with a device’s IP
address, informs the rest of the network about the network
class to which the device is on
 Subnetting

Figure 3: Subnetted IP address and its subnet mask

 Subnetting

Figure 4: Subnetted network connected to the Internet

Subnetting

Figure 5:
Network with
several
subnets
Subnetting

Figure 6: Data
traveling over
subnets
 Finding Subnet Address

Figure 7: Example of calculating a Subnet Address

 Gateways

Combination of software and hardware that enable

two different network segments to exchange data
Every device on a TCP/IP-based network has a
default gateway
 First interprets its outbound requests to other subnets
and then interprets its inbound requests from other
subnets
Core Gateways
 Gateways that make up the Internet backbone
 Gateways

Figure 8: Use of default gateways

Network Address Translation (NAT)
 Technique in
which IP
addresses
are assigned
a public IP
address by
an IP
gateway

Figure 9: NAT through an IP gateway

 Sockets and Ports

Socket
 Logical address assigned to a specific process running on a
host computer
 The socket’s address combines the host computer’s IP address
with the portnumber associated with a process
 Port numbers in the range of 0 to 1023 are called well-

known ports
 Sockets and Ports

Table 2:
Commonly
used TCP/IP
port numbers
 Sockets and Ports

Table 3: Commonly used TCP/IP port numbers (cont.)

 Sockets and Ports

Figure 11: Virtual circuit for the Telnet service

Host Names and Domain Name System
(DNS)
Host name
 Symbolic name that describes a TCP/IP device
Domain
 Group of computers that belong to the same organization and
have part of their IP addresses in common
 Domain Names

Symbolic name that identifies an organization

Top-level domains (TLDs)
 Highest-level category used to distinguish domain names
 A TLD is known as the domain suffix
 Domain Names

Table 4: Domain naming conventions

 Host Files

 Text file that associates TCP/IP host names with IP

addresses
 Alias
 Nickname for a node’s host name

Figure 12: An example of a host file

 Host Files

On a UNIX-based computer a host file is:

 Called hosts
 Located in the /etc directory
On a Windows 9x computer, a host file:
 Is called lmhosts
 Must be located in the c:\windows directory in order to be
recognized by the operating system
 Domain Name System (DNS)

Hierarchical way of tracking domain names and their

addresses, devised in the mid-1980s

Figure 13: DNS server hierarchy by geography

 Domain Name System (DNS)

Resolvers
 Hosts
on the Internet that need to look up domain
name information
Name servers
 Servers that contain databases of names and their
associated IP addresses
 Each name server manages a group of device,
collectively known as a zone
Configuring DNS

Figure 11-12:
Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP)
Properties dialog
box in Windows
2000
Configuring DNS

Figure 11-13:
DNS
Configuration
properties tab
 DNS Name Space

Name space
 Refers to the actual database of Internet IP addresses and their
associated names
 Every name server holds a piece of the DNS name space
 At the highest level of the hierarchy sit the root servers
 DNS Name Space

Resource record
 Element of a DNS database stored on a name server that
contains information about TCP/IP host names and their
addresses
 Address resource record
 Type of resource record that maps the IP address of an Internet-
connected device to its domain name
 Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)

Service that simplifies IP address management

Figure 11-14: The BOOTP process

 Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)

Thanks to BOOTP, a client does not have to

remember its own IP address
 Therefore, network administrators do not have to go
to each workstation on a network and manually
assign its IP address
This situation is ideal for diskless
workstations
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
Automated means of assigning a unique IP address
to every device on a network
Reasons for implementing DHCP
 Reduce the time and planning spent on IP address
management
 Reduce the potential for errors in assigning IP addresses

 Enable users to move their workstations and printers

without having to change their TCP/IP configuration
 Make IP addressing transparent for mobile users
 DHCP Leasing Process

 Lease
 Agreement between DHCP server and client on how long the client
will borrow a DHCP-assigned IP address

Figure 11-15:
DHCP lease
agreement
 Terminating a DHCP Lease

A DHCP lease may expire based on the period

established for it in the server configuration
A DHCP lease may be manually terminated at any
time from either the client’s TCP/IP configuration
or the server’s DHCP configuration
In some instances, a user must terminate a lease
Release
 The act of terminating a DHCP lease
 Windows Internet Naming Service
(WINS)
Provides a means of resolving NetBIOS names with
IP addresses
WINS offers several advantages
 Guarantees a unique NetBIOS name is used for each computer
on a network
 Support for DHCP
 Better network performance
Windows Internet Naming Service
(WINS)

Figure 11-16:
Advanced
TCP/IP
Settings
dialog box in
Windows
2000
 Addressing in IPv6

IPv6
 Also known as IP next generation or IPng
 Slated to replace the current IP protocol, IPv4
 Perhaps the most valuable advantage IPv6 offers over IPv4 is
its promise of billions and billions of additional IP addresses
through its new addressing scheme
 Addressing in IPv6

Unicast address
 Type of IPv6 address that represents a single interface on a
device
Multicast address
 Type of address in IPv6 that represents multiple interfaces,
often on multiple nodes
Anycast address
 Type of address specified in IPv6 that represents a group of
interfaces, any of which can accept a transmission
 Addressing in IPv6

Another significant difference between IPv4

and IPv6 is that in IPv6, each address contains
a Format Prefix
 The Format Prefix is a variable-length field at the
beginning of the address that indicates what type of
address it is
 The Format Prefix also establishes the arrangement
of the rest of the address’s fields
 Review of TCP/IP Subprotocols

Internet Protocol (IP)

Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Telnet
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP)
 Allows the client to send a broadcast message with the MAC
address of a device and receive the device’s IP address in reply

Figure 11-17:
How RARP
works
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) and
Post Office Protocol (POP)

SMTP
 Responsible for moving messages from one e-mail server to
another
POP
 Provides centralized storage for e-mail messages
 Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP)

Mail storage and manipulation protocol that

depends on SMTP’s transport system
 Developed as a more sophisticated alternative to POP
 Most current version is version 4 (IMAP4)
 Biggest advantage of IMAP4 over POP relates to the fact users can
store messages on the mail server
 Additional Features of IMAP4

Users can retrieve all or only a portion of any

mail message
Users can review their messages and delete
them while the messages remain on the server
Users can create sophisticated methods of
organizing messages on the server
Users can share a mailbox in a central location
IMAP4 can provide better security than POP
because it supports authentication
 Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)

Language that Web clients and servers use to

communicate
Forms the backbone of the Web
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
 Language that defines formatting standards for Web
documents
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)

Figure 11-18: Web client/server transmission using

HTTP
 Network Time Protocol (NTP)

Used to synchronize the clocks of a computers on a

network
Very simple protocol
Belongs to Application Layer of TCP/IP Model
Depends on UDP
 TCP/IP Troubleshooting

Of all network protocols, TCP/IP is most likely

to cause problems because it requires the most
planning and post-installation configuration
Be aware of the troubleshooting tools and their
switches
These troubleshooting utilities can be accessed
from the command prompt on a server or client
running TCP/IP
 ARP

ARP table
 Database that lists the associated MAC and IP
addresses
 Contains two types of entries:
 Dynamic ARP table entries
 Static ARP table entries
ARP utility provides a way of obtaining
information from and manipulating a device’s
ARP table
 Packet Internet Groper (PING)

Troubleshooting utility that can verify TCP/IP is

installed, bound to the NIC, configured correctly,
and communicating with the network
An echo request is a signal sent out to another
computer
An echo reply is the other computer’s response
signal
Process of sending this signal back and forth is
known as pinging
 Packet Internet Groper (PING)

Figure 11-19: Example of successful and unsuccessful PING

 Netstat

Netstat utility display TCP/IP statistics and details

about TCP/IP components and connections on a host

Figure 11-20: Output of a simple netstat command

 Nbstat

The nbstat utility can provide information

about NetBIOS statistics and resolve
NetBIOS names to their IP addresses
 In other words, if you know the NetBIOS name
of a workstation, you can use nbstat to determine
its IP address
Nbstat is useful on networks that run
Windows-based operating systems and
NetBIOS
 Nslookup

 Allows you to look up the DNS host name of a network

node by specifying its IP address, or vice versa

Figure 11-21: Output of a simple ns lookup command

 Traceroute

 Uses ICMP to trace path from one networked node to another

 Also known as tracert on Windows machines

Figure 11-22: Output of a traceroute command

 Ipconfig

 TCP/IP administration utility for use with Windows NT and

Windows 2000 operating systems

Figure 11-23: Output of an ipconfig command on a Windows 2000 workstation

 Winipcfg

 This utility performs the same TCP/IP configuration

management as the ipconfig utility, but also applies to
Windows 9x and Me operating systems

Figure 11-24: Winipcfg dialog box

 Winipcfg

Figure 11-25:
Detailed
information
available through
winipcfg
 Ifconfig

 TCP/IP configuration and management utility used on UNIX systems

Figure 11-26: Detailed information available through ifconfig

 Internet Services

World Wide Web (WWW, or Web)

 Collection of internetworked servers that share
resources and exchange information according to
specific protocols and formats
 Browser
 Software that provides clients with a simple, graphical
interface to the Web
 World Wide Web

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Standard means of identifying every Web page

Unqualified host name
 Host name minus its prefix and suffix
 E-mail and
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 E-mail
 Currently, e-mail is most relied-upon Internet service you will manage
 FTP
 Manages files transfers between TCP/IP hosts

Figure 11-27: FTP login screen

 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and
Gopher
TFTP
 TCP/IP Application layer protocol that enables file transfers
between computers
Gopher
 Text-based utility that allows you to navigate through a series
of menus to find and read specific files
 Newsgroups and E-commerce

Newsgroups
 Provides means of conveying messages in which
information is distributed to a wide group of users at
once
 Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP)
 Supports process of reading newsgroup messages, posting
new messages, and transferring news files between news
servers
E-commerce
 Means of conducting business over the Web
 Voice Over IP (VoIP)

Provision of telephone service over the Internet

Often called Internet telephony
Not all VoIP calls are carried over the Internet
 VoIP over private lines is a very effective and
economical method of completing calls between two
locations within an organization
 Voice Over IP (VoIP):
Phone-to-Phone

 Two traditional phones are connected through a TCP/IP network

Figure 11-28: A phone-to-phone VoIP call

 Voice Over IP (VoIP):
PC-to-Phone

 One end of the call uses a PC, while the other end relies on a
traditional telephone

Figure 11-29: A PC-to-phone VoIP call

 Voice Over IP (VoIP):
PC-to-PC

 Two PCs connect through a TCP/IP network to complete calls

Figure 11-30: A PC-to-PC VoIP call

 Summary

 Every device on a TCP/IP-based network must have a

unique IP address to ensure reliable data delivery
 In addition to Class A, B, and C networks, Class D and E
networks exist, although consumers and companies do not
use them
 To use IP addresses more efficiently, the concept of
subnetting was applied to the Internet in the mid-1980s
 Gateways are a combination of software and hardware that
enable two different network segments to exchange data
 A socket is a logical address assigned to a specific process
running on a host computer
 Summary
 The use of port numbers simplifies TCP/IP
communications
 Every host belongs to a domain
 In the mid-1980s, the Network Information Center
(NIC) at Stanford Research Institute devised a
hierarchical way of tracking domain names and their
addresses, called the Domain Name System (DNS)
 To ease IP address management, a service called
Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) was developed in the mid-
1980s
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an
automated means of assigning a unique IP address to
every device on a network
 Summary

 Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) provides a means of

resolving NetBIOS names with IP addresses
 TCP/IP is a suite of protocols, commonly called subprotocols
 TCP/IP carries the highest potential of causing problems because
it requires the most planning and post-installation configuration
 TCP/IP comes with a complete set of troubleshooting tools that
can help you to track down most TCP/IP-related problems
 There are numerous Internet services, including the World Wide
Web, e-mail, File Transfer Protocol, gopher, newsgroups, e-
commerce, and VoIP