Section 5

FIRED HEATERS

5.1

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the session you should:

Be familiar with the basic types of furnaces and their applications.

Know the meaning of common furnace terms.

Understand and be able to calculate furnace efficiency.

Have a basic understanding of key furnace design concepts.

Know what furnace flooding is.

Know where to look for more detailed information.

5.2

PROCESS ENGINEERS FURNACE WORK

Furnace Screening/Design - Grass Roots & Modifications, Check of

Vendor Designs

Rating/Troubleshooting Existing Furnaces

Checking/Monitoring Furnace Operation

Efficiency Calculations/Encon
Analyzing Plant Data

References
ExxonMobil Design Practices Sec. VIII
Blue Book Section 10

Computer Programs include 3558 Fired Heater Simulation, PC-HeAT

5.3

FIRED HEATERS WITHIN ExxonMobil

Sizes range from 2 to 280 MW heat fired

Approx Number of Heaters per Refinery (Europe)

Antwerp: 11
- Fos: 9
- Rotterdam: 9
Augusta: 22
- Ingolstadt: 6
- Slagen: 8
Fawley: 26 - Port Jerome: 13 - Trecate: 10
Dunkirk: 3 - Gravenchon: 10 (approx.)

Fuels fired include:

Refinery Gas Only (Common in USA Refineries, Chemical Plants, and
most new applications)
Refinery Gas plus Vacuum/Atmos Resid (more common in Europe
and Southeast Asia)
Low BTU Gas (refineries with Flexicokers - Rotterdam)

5.4

FURNACE TERMINOLOGY

5.5

FURNACE TYPES

Vertical Cylindrical Furnace

Horizontal Tube Cabin Furnace

Hoop Tube Cabin Furnace

Vertical Tube Box Furnace

Others
Horizontal Tube Box Furnace
Specialty Furnaces (Reformers, Steam Crackers)

5.6

Vertical-Cylindrical Furnace

Most Common Type

Heat Duties Up to
150 MBTU/Hr (45 MW)

Vertical Radiant Tubes /

Horizontal Convection
Tubes

5.7

Horizontal Tube Cabin Furnace

Heat Duties From 80 to 500

MBTU/Hr (25 - 145 MW)

Under 120 MBTU/Hr (35

MW), vertical cylindrical
usually cheaper

Over 150 MBTU/Hr (45

MW), vertical tube box
fired is more economical

5.8

Hoop Tube Cabin Furnace

All Vapor Flow, Non Coking,

Low Pressure Drop Service

Common in Catalytic
Reformers

Heat Duties From 70 to 400

MBTU/Hr (20 - 120 MW)

5.9

Trecate Hoop Tube - PWF

5.10

Hoop Tube Furnace

5.11

Vertical Tube Box Furnace

Exxon Proprietary Design

Large Heat Duties from

150-500+ MBTU/hr
(45 - 145+ MW)

Common in APS service

5.12

RADIANT/CONVECTION SECTIONS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Absorb heat released from burning of fuel and transfer to

process.

Composed of individual pipes or tubes linked together to form

serpentine coils.

Process flow divided among multiple flow paths or passes

(usually).

Pipe size, number of passes, metallurgy, set by specific design

considerations (DP VIII-B/C).
Typical sizes are 4, 6 and 8 inch NPS.

5.13

RADIANT/CONVECTION SECTIONS
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM
Radiant section heat absorption primarily radiant.
Qr = F(T4absgas - T 4abstube)
Radiating gas temperatures typically 800 - 900C
High average heat transfer rates, 28,500 to 38,000W/m2
typical design range.
Highest rates for non-coking services
Maldistribution of heat around tube and vertically in firebox.
Convection section mainly convective heat transfer.
Lower 2 bare rows called shock or shield.
Basically cross/counter flow heat exchanger.
Extended surface used to enhance heat transfer.

5.14

RADIANT/CONVECTION SECTIONS
MAJOR ELEMENTS

Casing -Generally 6mm CS plate.

Insulation system
Generally internal.
Castable refractory, ceramic fiber, maintain casing <82C,
(Design Basis)

Heat Transfer surface.

Tube support / guide.

Internal walls or baffles - select styles of heaters.

Observation doors / Access doors.

Platforms and ladders.

5.15

CONVECTION SECTION
EXTENDED SURFACE

SURFACE

CYLINDRICAL STUD
EXTENDED SURFACE

5.16

STACKS

Disposes of flue gases at an elevation and velocity consistent

with safety and environmental considerations.

Creates the necessary DRAFT to overcome pressure losses in the

system,, such as burners, convection section, etc.
DRAFT is defined as the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the flue gas pressure at a given location within
the furnace.

Types
Fired heater supported, ground supported
Internally lined, externally lined, unlined
Design considerations/procedures contained in DP VIIIC.

5.17

STACKS

Diameter Based On Target Gas Velocity

Reasonable Pressure Loss At Exit
Avoid Inversion And Minimize Pollution
Typically 25 To 50 Ft/Sec (7.6 to 15 m/sec)

Height Based On Draft Requirements Or Local Pollution

Control Standards
Max Height 150-200 Ft (45 to 60 m). Above Grade For
Furnace-Supported Stacks
Use Ground-Supported Stack Above 200 Ft ( 60 m ).

5.18

STACK EFFECT WITH COLUMN OF HOT

GAS
(NO FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS)

5.19

TYPICAL FIRED HEATER DRAFT PROFILE

5.20

Stack Draft, (contd)

Effect of Damper

5.21

Combustion System
Components

Burners, Pilots

Fuel system

Air supply system

Forced draft
Natural draft

Protective/Control systems
Flame Detection
Air flow protection (Forced draft)
Process flow protection

Low NOx Burner

5.22

Combustion System
Combustion Theory
Definition: Chemical Combination Of Fuel With Oxygen In Air
Which Releases Heat
CxHy + (x+y/4) O2

----> xCO2 + (y/2)H2O + Heat

Theoretical or Stoichiometric Air if no O 2 appears in combustion

products.
Assumes Perfect Mixing And no Humidity
Excess air is defined as the amount of air required above the
theoretical amount
If Less Oxygen Than Required(Sub-stoichiometric); CO And
Unburned Hydrocarbons Appear In Flue Gas

5.23

OPTIMUM EXCESS AIR

5.24

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Fuel System

Supplies fuel to the burners.

Must ensure clean fuel is available continuously at the rate

and pressure required to meet the duty requirements of the
process.

Includes piping, control valves, filtration equipment, and

knockout drum (for gas).
Fuel oil systems include atomising steam piping and
controls

Malfunction of any of these parts can affect furnace

operation.

5.25

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Air Supply System

Control total flow rate of air

Assure air distribution to all burners

Components include:
Air distribution plenum or header
Flow Control Device (damper or guide vanes)
Noise reduction device or silencer
Flow modeling often performed to verify flow distribution

Design Practices VIII F and G give calculation procedures

5.26

SIMULTANEOUS CONTROL OF FLUE GAS AND

DRAFT FOR NATURAL DRAFT HEATER

5.27

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Basic Control

Control of firing rate based upon process temperature.

Control of combustion air rate based upon O2 measurement and

air flow/air demand, where applicable.

Control of heater draft.

Control of pass flow distribution for applicable process services.

Requirements in IP15-1-1

5.28

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Protective Systems - Flame Monitoring

Pilot or main flame monitoring.

Most new applications include pilot interlock to prevent start-up

in the absence of pilot flame.

Most common devices include:

UV Scanners (boilers, Sulphur plant, single-burners
applications)
Flame Ionisation Rods (pilots)

5.29

COMBUSTION SYSTEM
Protective Instrumentation

Protection against loss of total process flow.

Protection against loss of combustion air or fans - where measured.

Firebox overpressure protection - high process pressure or forced

draft applications.

Protection against loss of pilots - low gas pressure.

Additional trips for air preheat systems.

Principal action to shut off main fuels.

Details in IP 15-1-1

5.30

General Instrumentation & Control for

Natural Draft Fired Heaters

5.31

Additional
Instruments
Required for Forced
Draft Process Fired
Heaters

5.32

Additional
Instruments
Required for
Fired Heaters
with Flue
Gas/Air Preheaters

5.33

Fuel Instrumentation and Controls for

Fired Heaters with Continuous Pilots

5.34

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

Instrumentation Enables Furnace To Be Operated Safely And

Efficiently, With Alarms To Warn Of Potential Problems.

Protective System Cuts Out Fuel(s) From The Furnace To Prevent A

Potentially Hazardous Situation.
All Components Are Separate From Control System.

Requirements Are Covered In IP 15-1-1, Instrumentation For Fired

Heaters.

5.35

FURNACE EFFICIENCY
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Low/High Heating Value (LHV/HHV)

Excess Air

Heat Absorbed

Heat Fired

Net/Gross Fuel Required

5.36

FURNACE EFFICIENCY
CALCULATIONS

Efficiency =

Heat Absorbed by Process

x 100

Heat Fired

Heat Absorbed = QA= W.h

Heat Fired = FGROSS x (Heating Value)

Three Methods
Input/Output
Stack Loss Method
EMS or Simplified Method

5.37

FURNACE EFFICIENCY
INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD

Determine Heat Absorbed by All Process Streams

Determine Gross Heat Fired (LHV or HHV)

Calculate Efficiency

Requires Data on:

Fuel Flow Rate and Composition
Process Flow Rates, Temperatures and Pressures
Process Enthalpy Information

Difficult to Achieve Good Accuracy

Not Recommended for Checking Furnace Operation

5.38

FURNACE EFFICIENCY
STACK LOSS METHOD

Requires Only Knowledge of Stack Temperature, Excess Air,

Fuel Properties, and Estimated Heat Leak

Recommended for Checking Furnace Operation

Three Steps Required

1. Calculate Excess Air
2. Calculate Heat Absorbed by Process
3. Calculate Gross Heat Fired

5.39

FURNACE EFFICIENCY EXAMPLE

Fuel Type:

Natural Gas LHV = 45400 kJ/kg

Flue Gas Analysis (Dry Basis)

Mol. %
N2
84.6
O2
3.8
CO2 11.6
100.0
Stack Temperature:

260oC

Estimated Heat Losses: 2%

Calculate Efficiency

5.40

EXCESS AIR (Simplified Equation)

Excess Air, % (wet)

Excess Air, % (dry)

EA

111.4 x %0

EA

20.95 %0

91.2 x %0

2
20.95 %0
2

5.41

FURNACE EFFICIENCY EXAMPLE

1. Calculation of Excess air

Dry Analysis of O2
91.2 x3.8
Excess Air

20.2
20.95 3.8

Say 20%

5.42

FURNACE EFFICIENCY
2. Calculate Heat Absorbed by Process

2.1 Calculate Heat Available Per lb (kg) Fuel

-DPM Section VIII-M Figure 4 Thru 10 Maxwell pp. 184 - 188
Heat
Available
BTU/lb
(kJ/kg)

0%

40

E xc

20

e ss

Air

Stack Temp. F (C)

2.2 Estimate Heat Losses:
MBTU/hr (MW)
0-15 (0-4)
3
15-100 (4-29)
2
100 + (29+)
1

Furnace Rated Capacity

Loss

% Heat

5.43

FURNACE EFFICIENCY EXAMPLE

2. Calculate Heat Absorbed
For Ts = 260oC, 20% Excess Air, LHV = 45,400 kJ/kg
H.A. = 40,000

kJ/kg Fuel

Heat Removed From Stack Gases

See DPM Section VIII-M Figure A7B, Page 17

Heat Absorbed (Qa) = 40,000 kJ (1-0.02) = 39,200 kJ/ kg FUEL

3. Efficiency
Eff =

Qa
LHV

x 100 =

39,200
45,400

x 100

86.3% (LHV Basis)

5.44

Heat Available From Combustion

of Refinery Fuel Gas

5.45

EMS Efficiency
(Simplified Method)

Efficiency, %
Eff = {100 - [0.0427 + 0.00034 * XSA] * [Ts - Tair]} * [100/(100 + Loss)]

XSA - percent excess air in combustion products

Ts - stack temperature, C
Tair - combustion air temperature, C
Qcase - casing heat loss, %
1% for fired heaters with Qabs > 30 MW
2% for fired heaters with 5 MW < Qabs < 30 MW
3% for fired heaters with Qabs < 5 MW

5.46

EMS Efficiency

Excess Air = 20% (from above)

Eff= {100 - [ 0.0427 + 0.00034 * XSA] * [Ts - Tair]} * [100/(100 + Loss)]
= {100 - [ 0.0427 + 0.00034 * 20 ] * [ 260 - 15 ]} * [100/(100 + 2)]
= 86.15%

CLOSE ENOUGH!!!!

5.47

AIR PREHEATER

Increases Furnace efficiency by reducing stack temperature (see

example).

Amount of heat recovery limited by flue gas acid dew point.

Need margin of at least 35F (20C).
Dewpoint -- Minimum stack temperature ranges from ~ 266F
(130C) with clean fuel gas to >446 F (>230C) with high-sulfur
fuel oil.

Requires significant investment in equipment, instrumentation

and controls.

Seldom justified for new applications today except for special

cases.

5.48

AIR PREHEATERS
Consider When:
Stack Temperature > 644F (340C)
Fuel Value is High
Heat Absorbed is Large, >100 MBTU/hr (30 MW)
Forced Draft Burners are Used
Can Combine Flue Gases of More than One Furnace

5.49

PRINCIPLE TYPES

Rotary
Regenerative Air
Preheater

Typical Installation

5.50

PRINCIPLE TYPES (Cont.)

Tubular Air Preheater

Typical Circulating Fluid

Air Preheat System

5.51

AIR PREHEAT EFFECT ON FURNACE

EFFICIENCY

Take previous efficiency example

Recover heat to reduce stack temperature to 150oC
Calculate Heat Available at 150oC
DPM Section VIII-M Figure, 7 Page 9
H.A. = 42,600 kJ/ kg FUEL
Heat Absorbed = 42,600 kJ (1 - 0.02) = 41,750 kJ/ kg FUEL
Efficiency = 41,750 /45,000x 100 = 92.0% (LHV Basis)
Fuel Savings
If Qabsorbed = 50 MW,
Qfired (with APH) = 50/0.92 = 54.3 MW
Qfired (without APH) = 50/0.86 = 58.1 MW
Difference = 3.8 MW (Approx $227k per year)

5.52

Heat Available From Combustion

of Refinery Fuel Gas

5.53

Improvements in Heater Operation and

Efficiency

Well sealed heater

Low draft operation
Target -2.5 mm H2O

Low Excess air

Account for air leakage due to ineffective sealing
Check that
Burner fuel valve fully open and pressure increases taken by all
burners
Air dampers fully open so all burners have same air (only close
when burners out of service (repair or possibly extended
turndown)
Burners fire in combination when oil and gas firing
Check Flames for impingement, colour and profile
Fuel oil and steam temperature must be correct for good
combustion

5.54

Fired Heater Flooding

Definition
Filling of the combustion zone with fuel that has
insufficient air for stable combustion
In this situation, the coil outlet temperature may drop,
triggering the temperature controller to increase fuel
flow to the burners. However, because there is
insufficient air for combustion and the fuel is not
burned, more and more unburnt fuel will build-up inside
the furnace, creating the risk of an explosion.

5.55

Fired Heater Flooding

How to recognise flooding

- Abnormally low process COT combined with high fuel flow.
- Drop in bridgewall temperature combined with high fuel flow
- Pressure pulsation in the firebox possibly causing rapid
fluctuations of stack damper
- The firebox may appear hazy and have long yellow flames.
(However, a clean flame does not necessarily mean the furnace
is not flooded).
- The furnace may begin to pant (produce a thumping noise).
- Possible smoky stack although may not be noticeable with gas
firing

5.56

Fired Heater Flooding

More common due to low excess air operation

Recent Incidents have occurred that have lead to heater

explosions / near misses
Disbelieving Instruments (particularly O2)
Removal of O2 analyser from service
Wind affecting bridgewall pressure transmitter
Sudden changes in fuel requirement with too slow response
from air system in Natural Draft heaters
O2 analysers in wrong locations
Sudden changes in fuel quality

5.57

Fired Heater Flooding

Combating Flooding

REDUCE Fuel fired

DO NOT introduce air by opening stack or

air dampers

5.58

Consequences of Flooding

5.59

Consequences of Flooding

5.60

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Air Pre-heater.
A heat exchanger that heats the air required for combustion by
exchanging heat with the flue gases leaving the convection section.
Arch.
above.

The overhead (usually flat) portion of the radiant section, supported from

Box.
The burners and tubes are enclosed in the fire-box, which consists of a
structure, refractory lining and tube supports.
Breeching.
The hood that collects the flue gas at the convection section exit,
for transmission to the stack.
Bridgewall Temperature.
The temperature of the flue gas leaving the radiant
section. The term comes from the old horizontal box heaters, where a bridge-wall
physically separated the radiant and convection sections.
Burner.

A device for mixing fuel and air for combustion.

Casing. A steel sheathing which encloses the heater box and makes it essentially
air tight.
Cell.
A portion of the radiant section, separated from other cells by tubes or a
refractory wall. Also called a "zone".

5.61

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Center Wall.
separate cells.

A refractory wall in the radiant section, which divides it into two

Coil.
A series of straight tube lengths connected by 180 return bends, forming a
continuous path through which the process fluid passes and is heated.
Convection Section.
The portion of a heater, consisting of a bank of tubes,
which receives heat from the hot flue gases, mainly by convection.
Corbelling.
Narrow ledges, or baffles, extending from the convection section
side walls to prevent gas from flowing preferentially up the side of the convection
section, between the wall and the nearest tubes, thereby bypassing the tube bank.
Critical Velocity.
A fluid velocity equal to the velocity of sound through the fluid at
its temperature and pressure. Also called sonic velocity.
Crossover.
Piping which transfers the process fluid either externally or
internally from one section of the heater to another.
Damper. A device to regulate the flow of gas through a stack or duct and to control
draft in a heater. A typical device consists of a flat plate connected to a shaft that
can be rotated, similar to a butterfly valve.

5.62

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Draft.
The negative pressure (vacuum) at a given point inside the heater, usually
expressed in inches of water.
Excess Air.
The percentage of air in the heater in excess of the stoichiometric
amount required for combustion.
Extended Surface. Surface added to the outside of bare tubes in the convection
section to provide more heat transfer area. This may consist of cylindrical studs buttwelded to the tube or fins continuously would and welded to the tube.
Film.
A thin fluid layer adjacent to a pipe wall that remains in laminar flow, even
when the bulk flow is turbulent. The velocity profile in the film is approximately linear,
with zero velocity at the tube wall.
Film Coefficient.

The maximum temperature in the film, at the tube wall.

Fire Box. A term used to describe the structure which surrounds the radiant coils and
into which the burners protrude.
Flue Gas.A mixture of gaseous products that result from combustion of the fuels.
Fouling. The building up of a film or dirt, ash, soot or coke on heat transfer surfaces,
resulting in increased resistance to heat flow.

5.63

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Forced Draft. Use of a fan to supply combustion air to the burners and to overcome
the pressure drop through the burners. This is in contrast to natural draft, where the
buoyancy of the column of hot flue gas in the stack and heater provides the "suction"
to pull combustion air into the burners.
Fired Heater Efficiency.
heating value basis.

The ratio of heat absorbed to heat fired, on a lower

Gross Fuel.
The total fuel fired in the heater, including all losses (usually
expressed in kg/h (lbs/hr)).
Gross Heating Value.

See higher heating value.

Header. The fitting which connects two tubes in a coil. In common usage, "header"
refers to cast or forged 180 U-bends ("return" bends).
Header Box. The compartment at the end of the convection section where the
headers are located. There is no flow gas flow in the header box, since it is
separated from the inside of the heater by an insulated tube sheet. Header boxes
are sometimes also used in the radiant section.
Heat Available. The heat absorbed from the products of combustion (flue gas) as
they are cooled from the flame temperature to a given flue gas temperature.

5.64

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Heat Density. The rate of heat transfer per unit area to a tube, usually based on
total outside surface area. Typical units are W/m2 (Btu/hr/ft2). Also called "heat
flux".
Heat Duty. The total heat absorbed by the process fluid, usually expressed in MW
(Megawatts) or M Btu/hr (million Btu per hour). Total fired heater duty is the sum of
heat transferred to all process streams, including auxiliary services such as steam
super-heaters and drier coils.
Heat Fired. The total heat released in the heater, equal to gross fuel times lower
heating value (LHV) of the fuel. Usually expressed in MW (MBtu/hr)
Higher Heating Value (HHV). The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, when
the water formed is considered as a liquid (credit taken for its heat of combustion).
Also called gross heating value.
Hip Section. The transition zone at the top of the radiant section in cabin type
furnaces. The wall of this section is usually at a 45 degree angle.
Induced Draft. Use of a fan to provide the additional draft required over that
supplied by the stack, to draw the flue gas through the convection section, and any
downstream heat recovery equipment (i.e. air pre-heater).

5.65

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Inspection Doors. Openings in the convection section side-walls to allow inspection
of tubes, extended surfaces and supports, when the heater is out of service.
NPS. Abbreviation for "Nominal Pipe Size".
Lower Heating Value (LHV). The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, when no
credit is taken for the heat of condensation of water in the flue gas. Also called net
heating value. Usually expressed in kJ/kg (Btu/lb)
Manifold. A pipe connected to several parallel passes and used to distribute or
collect fluid from these passes..
Mass Velocity. The mass flow rate per unit of flow area through the coil. Typical
units of measurement are kg/s m2 (lb/sec ft2)
Natural Draft. System in which the draft required to move combustion air into the
heater and flue gas through the heater and out of the stack is provided by stack
effect alone.
Net Fuel. The fuel which would be required in the heater if there were no radiation
losses. Usually expressed in kg/h (lb/hr).
Observation Doors. Openings in the radiant section floor and at selected points
along the walls, to permit viewing of tubes, supports and burners.

5.66

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
One-Sided Fired Tubes. Radiant section tubes located adjacent to a heater wall
have only one side directly exposed to a burner flame. Radiation to the back sides
of the tubes is by reflection/re-radiation from the refractory wall.
Pass. A coil which transports the process fluid from fired heater inlet to outlet.
The total process fluid can be transported through the heater by one or more
parallel passes.
Peepholes. Small observation ports usually placed in the radiant section floor
and/or arch to permit viewing of tubes, supports and burners. They are usually
glass covered.
Radiant Section. The section of the fired heater in which heat is transferred to the
heater tubes primarily by radiation from high temperature flue gas.
Service Factor. A measure of the continuity of operation, generally expressed as
the ratio of total running days for a given time period to the total calendar days in
the period.
Setting. The refractory insulation on the inside of the heater box.

5.67

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Shield Section. The first two tube rows of the convection section. These tubes are
exposed to direct radiation from the radiant section and usually receive about half
of their heat in this manner. They are usually made of more resistant material than
the rest of the tubes in the convection section. Extended surfaces are not used in
this section.
Sootblower. A steam lance (usually movable) in the convection section for blowing
soot and ash from the tubes using high-pressure steam.
Stack. A cylindrical steel, concrete or brick shell which carries flue gas to the
atmosphere and provides necessary draft.
Stack Effect. The difference (buoyancy) between the weight of a column of high
temperature gases inside the heater and/or stack and the weight of an equivalent
column of external air, usually expressed in inches of water per foot of height.
Stack Temperature. The temperature of the flue gas as it leaves the convection
section, or air pre-heater directly upstream of the stack.
Transfer Line. Piping used to connect the fired heater outlet to downstream
processing equipment (tower, reactor etc.)
Tube Guide. Device used to restrict movement of tubes.

5.68

FURNACE DEFINITIONS
Tube Sheet. A large tube support plate located in the convection section and
supporting a number of tubes. The end supports are usually carbon steel or lowalloy steel and make up one side of the header box. The inside of the end
supports, which is exposed to the flue gas, is insulated. Intermediate supports are
exposed to flue gas on both sides and are fabricated of a suitable alloy material,
usually castings.
Tube Support. A metal part which supports the weight of the tube.
Turndown. Reduced operating conditions compared to design conditions. This
usually refers to reduced heat duty, which may be the result of reduced throughput
and/or reduced enthalpy requirements.
Two-Side Fired Tubes. Radiant tubes which are exposed on both sides to direct
radiation from the burners.

5.69