INTRODUCTION

MEASUREMENT STANDARDS AND UNITS

Chapter Objectives Contents
To define some
measurement terms Definition
Definitionand
andmeasurement
measurement

To describe basic Errors

Errorsin
inmeasurement
measurement
measurement units process
process

and relate to Classification

Classificationof
ofinstruments
instruments
derivative units
To characterize Instrument
InstrumentElements
Elements
instruments
Application
ApplicationArea
Area
To differentiate
between instrument
and indicators
DEFINITION &
MEASUREMENT
Definition
Measurement The
Instrumentation is a process of determining the
technology of measurement amount, degree, or capacity
which serves not only science by comparison (direct or
but all branches of indirect) with the accepted
engineering, medicine, and standards of the system
almost every human units being used.
endeavor. Accuracy The degree of
Electronic Instrumentation exactness (closeness) of a
the application of measurement compared to
measurement technology in the expected (desired) value.
Electronic-related field. Resolution The smallest
Instrument A device or change in a measured
mechanism used to variable to which an
determine the present value instrument will respond.
of the quantity under
measurement.
Definition
Precision A measure of the Error The deviation of the
consistency or repeatability of true value from the desired
measurements, i.e. value.
successive reading do not Sensitivity The ratio of the
differ. (Precision is the change in output (response)
consistency of the instrument of the instrument to a change
output for a given value of of input or measured
input). variable.
Expected value The
design value, i.e. the most
probable value that
calculations indicate one
should expect to measure.
Measurement
Measurand Displacement
The process of comparing Strain
an unknown quantity with an
accepted standard quantity.
Vibration
The process of determining Pressure
the amount, degree, or
capacity by comparison Flow
(direct or indirect) with the Temperature
accepted standards of the
system units being used. Force
Torque
Measurand
Displacement: Vector Flow: Stream of molten or
representing a change in position liquidified material that can
of a body or a point with respect be measured in term of speed
to a reference. and quantity
Strain: Relative deformation of Temperature: Measure of
elastic, plastic, and fluid materials relative warmth or coolness of
under applied forces.
an object compared to
Vibration: Oscillatory motion
absolute value.
which can be described in term of
Force: Defined as a quantity
amplitude (size), frequency (rate
of oscillation) and phase (timing of that changes the motion, size,
the oscillation relative to fixed or shape of a body.
time). Torque: Defined as the
Pressure: Ratio of force tendency of a force to rotate
commonly acting on a surface to the body to which it is
the area of the surface. applied.
Unit
Base Unit
International System of Length meter (m)
Units (abbreviated SI Mass kilogram (kg)
from the French le
Systme international Time second (s)
d'units) Electric current
It is the world's most ampere (A)
widely used system of Temperature kelvin
measurement, both in (K)
everyday commerce and
in science. Luminous intensity
The SI was developed in candela (cd)
1960 from the old metre- Amount of substance
kilogram-second system. mole (mol)
Derivative Unit
Electric charge
coulomb (C)
Electric potential
difference volt (V)
Energy joule (J)
Electric resistance
ohm () Force newton (N)
Electric capacitance Magnetic flux
farad (F) weber (Wb)
Electric inductance Power watt (W)
henry (H)
ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Direct Analysis
Formula
Error is the degree to
which a measurement
nears the expected
e Yn X n
value. It can be
expressed as: e = absolute error
Absolute error Yn = expected
Percentage of error value
Accuracy can be Xn = measured
calculated based on value
error.
Formula
e Yn X n
e
% E x100
Yn X n
x100
A 1 1
Yn Yn Yn Yn
%E = percentage of error
A = relative accuracy
e = absolute error e = absolute error
Yn = expected value Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value Xn = measured value

x100 1 Yn Xn
e

a Ax100 1 x100
Yn Yn

a = percentage of accuracy
A = relative accuracy Yn = expected value
e = absolute error Xn = measured value
Formula (Cont..)
P= Precision

xn x n
P 1
xn

Where
xn = value of the
nth
xn
measurement.
= average set
of
Example
1. The expected value of e Yn X n
the voltage across a
resistor is 80 V.
However, the e Yn X n
% E x100 x100
measurement gives a Yn Yn
value of 79 V. Calculate
:
e Yn X n
(i) absolute error A 1 1
(ii) percentage of error Yn Yn
(iii) relative accuracy
(iv) percentage of e
accuracy. a Ax100 1 x100 1

Yn
Statistical Analysis
Can be used to determine the Deviation from mean
uncertainty of the test results. dn is the deviation of the nth
The analysis require a large
data with the arithmetic
number of measurement (data) to mean.
be taken.
Average deviations
n Indicate the precision of the

x n
instrument used, lower
value of average deviation
x n 1
specify a highly precise
n instruments.
Standard deviation
Small value of standard
Arithmetic Mean deviation means that the
xn is nth data taken and n is measurement is improved.
the total of data or
measurement.
Example 2
n

For the following given

x n

data, calculate
x n 1
n
(i) Arithmetic mean;
(ii) Deviation of each dn x n x
value;
(iii) Algebraic sum of dtotal d 1 d 2 ....dn
the deviations;
(iv) Average deviation; Dav | d 1 | | d 2 | .... | dn |
(v) Standard deviation.
Given x1 = 49.7; x2 =
50.1; x3 = 50.2; x4 =
49.6; x5 = 49.7
Source of Error
Errors in measurement Gross Errors
can be broadly defined Because of the human
in three categories: mistakes.
Gross errors Improper or incorrect
installation or use of
Systematic errors
measurement
Random errors instrument.
Failure to eliminate
parallax during reading
or recording the
measurement.
Cannot be remedied
mathematically.
Systematic Errors Random
Errors
Because of the Occur when different
instrument. results in magnitude
Three types of or sign obtained on
systematic errors: repeated
Instrumental errors
measurement of one
or the same quantity.
Environmental
The effect can be
errors minimized by taking
Observational the measurement
errors many times.
Produce constant This error can be
uniform deviation. handled
mathematically.
CLASSIFICATION OF
INSTRUMENTS
Absolute
Secondary
Provide magnitude of Provide magnitude of
the quantity under the quantity under
measurement in terms measurement only from
of physical constant of the observation of the
the instrument. output from instrument.
Most instrument used in
practice are secondary.
Operation type
Deflection Null
Only one source of Require two input
input required. measurand and
Output reading is balance input.
based on the Must have feedback
deflection from the operation that
initial condition of the compare the
instrument. measurand with
The measured value of standard value.
the quantity depends More accurate and
on the calibration of sensitive compared to
the instrument. deflection type
instrument.
Signal Type
Analog Digital
Produce the signal Produce the signal
that vary in that vary in discrete
continuous way. steps.
Infinite range of Finite different
value in any given values in a given
range. range.
INSTRUMENT ELEMENTS
 Model

Important element is sensor which can convert

the physical variable into signal variable.
Signal variable can be displayed, recorded or
integrated into secondary instrument system.
Signal variable may also be used as an input
signal of a control system.
Block Diagram
Block Diagram (Simplified)
Subsystems
Transducers
Power Supply
Signal Conditioning Circuits
Filter / Amplifier
Data Processors
Process Controller
Command Generator
Recorder
Elements of Electronic
Instrumentation
Transducers
Device that converts a change in
physical quantity into a change of
electrical signal magnitude.
Power Supply
Provide energy to drive the transducers.
Signal Conditioning Circuits
Electronic circuits that manipulate,
convert the output from transducers into
more usable electrical signal.
Elements of Electronic
Instrumentation (cont.)
Amplifiers
Amplify low voltage signal from
transducers or signal conditional circuit.
Recorders
Used to display the measurement for
easy reading and interpretation.
Data Processors
Can be a microprocessor or
microcontroller.
Elements of Electronic
Instrumentation (cont.)
Process Controllers
Used to monitor and adjust any quantity
of the specified level or value.
Command Generator
Provide control voltage that represents
the difference of the parameter in a
given process.
APPLICATION AREA
APPLICATION AREA

Engineering Analysis
Process Control
Monitoring
Automation
APPLICATION AREA

Engineering Analysis
To validate new design of structure,
component or system by theoretical and
experimental approach
Process Control
Monitoring process: provide real-time
data that allow operator to respond.
Automatic process: provide real-time
feedback data to the control system.