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Introduction To Atomic Theory

This document provides an overview of foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure, including: 1) Early models of the atom from Dalton to Rutherford assumed classical particle behavior but failed to explain experimental observations, requiring a new quantum mechanical framework. 2) Planck and Einstein showed that radiation behaves as both waves and particles ("wave-particle duality"), with a photon's energy given by E=hν. 3) De Broglie hypothesized that all particles exhibit wave-like behavior, with wavelength given by λ=h/p. Electron diffraction experiments confirmed this. 4) Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inherent uncertainty in precisely knowing both a particle's position and

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48 views

Introduction To Atomic Theory

This document provides an overview of foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure, including: 1) Early models of the atom from Dalton to Rutherford assumed classical particle behavior but failed to explain experimental observations, requiring a new quantum mechanical framework. 2) Planck and Einstein showed that radiation behaves as both waves and particles ("wave-particle duality"), with a photon's energy given by E=hν. 3) De Broglie hypothesized that all particles exhibit wave-like behavior, with wavelength given by λ=h/p. Electron diffraction experiments confirmed this. 4) Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inherent uncertainty in precisely knowing both a particle's position and

Uploaded by

kedir
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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(Module Chem 212)

By
Tefera Entele
Book of the Power Point Slides
Please bring this book to all
lectures
At the end of the book, you
will find tutorial problems.
Your answer to these
questions must be handed in
to your Teacher two days
before each tutorial ( I will tell
you which problems to
attempt each week)
Recommended Textbooks
There are 2 books which are
helpful to you
Inorganic Chemistry by Bowser
A concise Inorganic Chemistry
by J. D. Lee
Inorganic Chemistry By James
E. Huheey
Inorganic Chemistry by Garry
Messieller
Early nineteenth century-John Dalton-first
scientific basis
Early twentieth century- Electron
Rutherford-Nuclear atom (only 1/1850 of
mass)
For hydrogen (simplest atom)
Atomic radius ( 50 pm) Nucleus
(nearly all the mass,
radius 10-3 pm)
Rutherford tried to use classical mechanics
(Newton to explain behavior of atoms)
He Failed
Need completely new
principles-quantum mechanics-
developed 1900-30
Atoms, electrons etc. do not
behave like the every
objects that we can see.
Hard to visualise-so let us step
back and look at the behavior
of radiation (light)
In the late 19th century, everyone knew
that radiation consisted of travelling
WAVES (diffraction etc.)

Amplitude

Velocity of propagation = 3.00 x 10 8


ms-1
speed of light Number of vaves
passing per second = frequency (),
Unit of frequency = Hertz (Hz), or
cycle per second
Whole range of radiation =
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Here is part of this spectrum:
Wavelength (,m) (short)10-8 10-6 10-4
Frequency (Hz) 3x1016 3x1014 3x1012

X-ray Infrared

UV-Visible
The wave consists of an oscillating ELECTRIC
FIELD-moving at the velocity of light
Note the relationship between
wavelength and frequency:

Short wave length, high


frequency

Long wave length, low frequency

= cWhere c= velocity of light


BUT in the late nineteenth century some problems appeared.
Several properties of radiation were discovered for which
could not be explained by waves. No time to go into detail
about these, but
Such problems were explained by Planck and
Einstein.
Planck and Einsteins explanation:
1. Radiation was quantised, i.e. consists of a
stream of PARTICLES.
2. These particles (quanta) are called
PHOTONS.
3. The energy of quantum(photon) is given by
the equation
E = h
Where h = Plancks constant, 6.63 x 10-34 J
s
There is therefore strong
evidence that radiation has the
properties of both waves and
particles!!
All early experiments on atoms, nuclei and electrons
assumed that they were particles.
But no theory could be found to
explain their properties.
Then in 1922, the French Physicist
de Broglie made a novel suggestion-if
light, which every one knew was
waves, could behave like particles,
perhaps electrons etc., which every
one knew were particles, could also
behave like waves.
The de Broglie
relationship
De Broglie pointed out that the energies
calculated for a wave and for a particle must be
equal for any thing that was behaving as both.

De Broglie showed that


=
Where h/pof wave, and
= wavelength
p = momentum of particle
(i.e. mass x velocity)
h = Plancks constant
This important equation links together wave () and particle (p)
properties.
The de Broglie relationship links
particle behavior (p) to wave
behavior

()
He then proposed that electrons (and indeed
any particle) would obey the same
relationship.
Revolutionary proposal needs proof!
How to detect wave behavior? DIFFRACTION
Electron diffraction founded by two groups
almost simultineously in 1925/6 (Davisson and
Germer (U.S.) and G.P. Thomson (U.K)) Their
experiments showed de Broglie was absolutely
correct, and the wave associated with the
electrons had exactly the predicted
wavelengths.
The de Broglie relationship
applies to all particles, i.e. all
particles possess an associated
wave.
Why are we unaware of this for every
day object?
It is because the Plancks constant
(h) is so small
A ball (mass 100 g) travelling at 1 ms-
1 will have an associated 34
h h 6.63 10 J .s

wavelength
p

mv
of 1 1
(10 kg ) 1m.s
= 6.63 x 10 -33
m
This wavelength is totally
undetectable
Compare with an electron travelling
at 3.5 x 105 m.s-1 which is 2.2 nm
This is now an easily measurable
amount, and not much larger than
the dimensions of atoms.
Thus we cannot ignore the wave
properties of an electron
The equation E = applies only to photons of
electromagnetic radiation (i.e light)
The de Broglie equation does not apply to
photons because they have no mass and
their velocity is constant.
Photons do display wave-particle duality (i.e.
they can seem to behave as particles or
waves depending on the experiment) but
this duality cannot be expressed by de
Broglie equation.
All particles with mass (i.e. every thing except
photons) are subjected to the de Broglie
equation and therefore have Matter waves
(not electromagnetic waves) associated with
them
The Uncertain Principle
Early ideas treaded the electrons in an
atom like planets going round the sun. The
path was a well-defined ORBIT.
Now that we know that an electron has
wave-like properties, with the same
order of magnitude as the size of an
atom-such precision is impossible.
All that we can do is to determine the
probability that an electron is in a
certain place.
This uncertainty was quantified
by HEISENBERG
In 1927, Heisenberg established his
UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE.
Suppose that the electron has a
position in space defined by 3
coordinates: x, y, z and has
momentum parallel to each axis: px,
py, pz
h
x.p
The uncertainty principle states that
x
4
The more accurate we know the position of an
electron, the less accurately can we know its
momentum, and vice versa.
This is not due to our experimental inadequacy, it
is an inherent property of matter
Two more points about the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle:
1.It applies to all matter but is only significant
for very small objects (size of atoms/molecules)
2.We must describe the behavior of an electron in
terms of probabilities. The exact orbits must
be replaced by ORBITALS
We need to determine the possible orbitals for
electrons in atoms, i.e. the allowed probability
distributions
Wave Functions
How to describe the behavior of an
electron?
Replace well defined trajectory of a
particle by a wave function. This tells
us how probable it is that an electron
is at a particular

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