Cosc 2150:

Computer Organization

Chapter 9, Part 3
Floating point numbers
 Real Numbers

Twos complement representation deal with

signed integer values only.
Without modification, these formats are not
useful in scientific or business applications
that deal with real number values.
Floating-point representation solves this
problem.
 Floating-Point Representation

If we are clever programmers, we can perform

floating-point calculations using any integer format.
This is called floating-point emulation, because
floating point values arent stored as such; we just
create programs that make it seem as if floating-
point values are being used.
Most of todays computers are equipped with
specialized hardware that performs floating-point
arithmetic with no special programming required.
Not embedded processors!
 Floating-Point Representation

Floating-point numbers allow an arbitrary

number of decimal places to the right of the
decimal point.
For example: 0.5 0.25 = 0.125
They are often expressed in scientific notation.
For example:
0.125 = 1.25 10-1
5,000,000 = 5.0 106
 Floating-Point Representation

Computers use a form of scientific notation for

floating-point representation
Numbers written in scientific notation have three
components:
 Floating-Point Representation
Computer representation of a floating-point
number consists of three fixed-size fields:

This is the standard arrangement of these fields.

Note: Although significand and mantissa do not technically mean the same
thing, many people use these terms interchangeably. We use the term significand to
refer to the fractional part of a floating point number.
 Floating-Point Representation

The one-bit sign field is the sign of the stored value.

The size of the exponent field determines the range of
values that can be represented.
The size of the significand determines the precision of
the representation.
 Floating-Point Representation

We introduce a hypothetical Simple Model to

explain the concepts
In this model:
A floating-point number is 14 bits in length
The exponent field is 5 bits
The significand field is 8 bits
 Floating-Point Representation

The significand is always preceded by an implied

binary point.
Thus, the significand always contains a fractional
binary value.
The exponent indicates the power of 2 by which the
significand is multiplied.
 Floating-Point Representation

Example:
Express 3210 in the simplified 14-bit floating-
point model.
We know that 32 is 25. So in (binary) scientific notation
32 = 1.0 x 25 = 0.1 x 26.
In a moment, well explain why we prefer the
second notation versus the first.
Using this information, we put 110 (= 610) in the
exponent field and 1 in the significand as shown.
 2.5 Floating-Point Representation

The illustrations shown at

the right are all equivalent
representations for 32
using our simplified
model.
Not only do these
synonymous
representations waste
space, but they can also
cause confusion.
 Floating-Point Representation

Another problem with our system is that we have

made no allowances for negative exponents. We
have no way to express 0.5 (=2 -1)! (Notice that
there is no sign in the exponent field.)

All of these problems can be fixed with no

changes to our basic model.
 Floating-Point Representation
To resolve the problem of synonymous forms, we
establish a rule that the first digit of the significand must
be 1, with no ones to the left of the radix point.
This process, called normalization, results in a unique
pattern for each floating-point number.
In our simple model, all significands must have the
form 0.1xxxxxxxx
For example, 4.5 = 100.1 x 20 = 1.001 x 22 =
0.1001 x 23. The last expression is correctly
normalized.

In our simple instructional model, we use no implied bits.

 Floating-Point Representation

To provide for negative exponents, we will use a

biased exponent.
A bias is a number that is approximately midway
in the range of values expressible by the
exponent. We subtract the bias from the value in
the exponent to determine its true value.
In our case, we have a 5-bit exponent. We
will use 16 for our bias. This is called
excess-16 representation.
In our model, exponent values less than 16 are
negative, representing fractional numbers.
 Example 1

Example:
Express 3210 in the revised 14-bit floating-
point model.
We know that 32 = 1.0 x 25 = 0.1 x 26.
To use our excess 16 biased exponent, we add 16 to
6, giving 2210 (=101102).
So we have:
 Example 2

Example:
Express 0.062510 in the revised 14-bit
floating-point model.
We know that 0.0625 is 2-4. So in (binary) scientific
notation 0.0625 = 1.0 x 2-4 = 0.1 x 2 -3.
To use our excess 16 biased exponent, we add 16 to
-3, giving 1310 (=011012).
 Example 3

Example:
Express -26.62510 in the revised 14-bit
floating-point model.
We find 26.62510 = 11010.1012. Normalizing, we have:
26.62510 = 0.11010101 x 2 5.
To use our excess 16 biased exponent, we add 16 to
5, giving 2110 (=101012). We also need a 1 in the sign
bit.
 Floating-Point Standards

The IEEE has established a standard for

floating-point numbers
The IEEE-754 single precision floating point
standard uses an 8-bit exponent (with a bias of
127) and a 23-bit significand.
The IEEE-754 double precision standard uses
an 11-bit exponent (with a bias of 1023) and a
52-bit significand.
 Floating-Point Representation

In both the IEEE single-precision and double-

precision floating-point standard, the significant has
an implied 1 to the LEFT of the radix point.
The format for a significand using the IEEE
format is: 1.xxx
For example, 4.5 = .1001 x 23 in IEEE format is
4.5 = 1.001 x 22. The 1 is implied, which means
is does not need to be listed in the significand
(the significand would include only 001).
 Floating-Point Representation

Example: Express -3.75 as a floating point number

using IEEE single precision.
First, lets normalize according to IEEE rules:
3.75 = -11.112 = -1.111 x 21
The bias is 127, so we add 127 + 1 = 128 (this is our
exponent)
The first 1 in the significand is implied, so we have:

(implied)
Since we have an implied 1 in the significand, this equates
to
-(1).1112 x 2 (128 127) = -1.1112 x 21 = -11.112 = -3.75.
FP Ranges
For a 32 bit number
8 bit exponent
+/- 2256 1.5 x 1077
Accuracy
The effect of changing lsb of significand
23 bit significand 2-23 1.2 x 10-7
About 6 decimal places
Expressible Numbers
 Floating-Point Representation

Using the IEEE-754 single precision floating point

standard:
An exponent of 255 indicates a special value.
If the significand is zero, the value is infinity.
If the significand is nonzero, the value is NaN, not a
number, often used to flag an error condition.
Using the double precision standard:
The special exponent value for a double
precision number is 2047, instead of the 255
used by the single precision standard.
 Floating-Point Representation

Both the 14-bit model that we have presented and

the IEEE-754 floating point standard allow two
representations for zero.
Zero is indicated by all zeros in the exponent
and the significand, but the sign bit can be
either 0 or 1.
This is why programmers should avoid testing a
floating-point value for equality to zero.
Negative zero does not equal positive zero.

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 Floating-Point Representation

Floating-point addition and subtraction are done

using methods analogous to how we perform
calculations using pencil and paper.
The first thing that we do is express both
operands in the same exponential power, then
add the numbers, preserving the exponent in the
sum.
If the exponent requires adjustment, we do so at
the end of the calculation.
FP Addition & Subtraction Flowchart
 Floating-Point addition example
Example:
Find the sum of 1210 and 1.2510 using the 14-
bit simple floating-point model.
We find 1210 = 0.1100 x 2 4. And 1.2510 = 0.101 x 2 1 =
0.000101 x 2 4.
Thus, our sum is
0.110101 x 2 4.
 Floating-Point Multiplication

Floating-point multiplication is also carried out in

a manner akin to how we perform multiplication
using pencil and paper.
We multiply the two operands and add their
exponents.
If the exponent requires adjustment, we do so at
the end of the calculation.
Floating Point Multiplication flowchart
 Floating-Point Multiplication Example
Example:
Find the product of 1210 and 1.2510 using the
14-bit floating-point model.
We find 1210 = 0.1100 x 2 4. And 1.2510 = 0.101 x 2 1.
Thus, our product is
0.0111100 x 2 5 =
0.1111 x 2 4.
The normalized
product requires an
exponent of 2210 =
101102.

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 Rounding and Errors

No matter how many bits we use in a floating-point

representation, our model must be finite.
The real number system is, of course, infinite, so our
models can give nothing more than an
approximation of a real value.
At some point, every model breaks down,
introducing errors into our calculations.
By using a greater number of bits in our model, we
can reduce these errors, but we can never totally
eliminate them.
 Rounding and Errors

Our job becomes one of reducing error, or at least

being aware of the possible magnitude of error in
our calculations.
We must also be aware that errors can compound
through repetitive arithmetic operations.
For example, our 14-bit model cannot exactly
represent the decimal value 128.5. In binary, it is 9
bits wide:
10000000.12 = 128.510
 2.5 Rounding and Errors

When we try to express 128.510 in our 14-bit model, we lose

the low-order bit, giving a relative error of:

128.5 - 128
128.5
0.39%

If we had a procedure that repetitively added 0.5 to 128.5,

we would have an error of nearly 2% after only four
iterations.
 Rounding and Errors

Floating-point errors can be reduced when we use

operands that are similar in magnitude.
If we were repetitively adding 0.5 to 128.5, it would
have been better to iteratively add 0.5 to itself and
then add 128.5 to this sum.
In this example, the error was caused by loss of
the low-order bit.
Loss of the high-order bit is more problematic.

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 Rounding and Errors

Floating-point overflow and underflow can cause

programs to crash.
Overflow occurs when there is no room to store
the high-order bits resulting from a calculation.
Underflow occurs when a value is too small to
store, possibly resulting in division by zero.

Experienced programmers know that its better for a

program to crash than to have it produce incorrect, but
plausible, results.
EVEN BETTER, CAUGHT THE ERROR and DEAL WITH
IT!
 Rounding and Errors

When discussing floating-point numbers, it is

important to understand the terms range,
precision, and accuracy.
The range of a numeric integer format is the
difference between the largest and smallest
values that can be expressed.
Accuracy refers to how closely a numeric
representation approximates a true value.
The precision of a number indicates how much
information we have about a value
 Rounding and Errors

Most of the time, greater precision leads to better

accuracy, but this is not always true.
For example, 3.1333 is a value of pi that is
accurate to two digits, but has 5 digits of
precision.
There are other problems with floating point
numbers.
Because of truncated bits, you cannot always
assume that a particular floating point operation is
commutative or distributive.
 Rounding and Errors

This means that we cannot assume:

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) or
a*(b + c) = ab + ac
Moreover, to test a floating point value for equality to some
other number, it is best to declare a nearness to x epsilon
value. For example, instead of checking to see if floating
point x is equal to 2 as follows:
if x == 2 then
it is better to use:
if (abs(x - 2) < epsilon) then ...
(assuming we have epsilon defined correctly!)
Q&A