Chapter TWELVE

Basic Approaches
to Leadership
What
What Is
Is Leadership?
Leadership?
Leadership
The ability to influence a
group toward the
achievement of goals

Management
Use of authority inherent in
designated formal rank to
obtain compliance from
organizational members
Trait
Trait Theories
Theories
Traits Theories of
Leadership
Theories that consider
personality, social, physical, Leadership
LeadershipTraits
Traits
or intellectual traits to Extraversion
Extraversion
differentiate leaders from
Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness
nonleaders
Openness
Openness
Emotional
EmotionalIntelligence
Intelligence
(Qualified)
(Qualified)
Trait
Trait Theories
Theories

Limitations
Limitations
NoNouniversal
universaltraits
traitsfound
foundthat
thatpredict
predictleadership
leadership
ininall
allsituations
situations
Unclear
Unclearevidence
evidenceofofthe
thecause
causeand
andeffect
effectofof
relationship
relationshipofofleadership
leadershipand
andtraits
traits
Better
Betterpredictor
predictorofofthe
theappearance
appearanceofofleadership
leadership
than
thandistinguishing
distinguishingeffective
effectiveand
andineffective
ineffective
leaders
leaders
Trait
Trait Approach
Approach

Traits (examples)
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Openness
Assumption: Leaders are born
Goal: Select leaders
Problems
Traits do not generalize across situations
Better at predicting leader emergence than leader
effectiveness
Behavioral
Behavioral Theories
Theories
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate
leaders from nonleaders

Behavioral
BehavioralTheory
Theory
Leadership
Leadershipbehaviors
behaviorscan
canbe
betaught.
taught.
vs.
vs.
Trait
TraitTheory
Theory
Leaders
Leadersare
areborn,
born,not
notmade.
made.
 Behavioral
Behavioral Approach
Approach

Ohio State Studies/University of Michigan

Initiating Structure/Production Orientation
Consideration/Employee Orientation
Assumption: Leaders can be trained
Goal: Develop leaders
Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalize across
situations.
Ohio
Ohio State
State Studies
Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely
to define and structure his or her
role and those of subordinates in the
search for goal attainment

Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for
subordinates ideas, and regard for his/her feelings
University
University of
of Michigan
Michigan Studies
Studies

Employee-oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal
interest in the needs of employees and accepting
individual differences among members

Production-oriented Leader
One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the
job
 The
The
Managerial
Managerial
Grid
Grid
(Blake
(Blakeand
andMouton)
Mouton)
Contingency Theories
All Consider the Theories
Contingency Situation
Fiedler Contingency Model
Cognitive Resource Theory
Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Model
Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models:

Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed.
Others: Leaders style can and should be changed.
Fiedler
Fiedler Model
Model
Leader: Style Is Fixed (Task-oriented vs. Relationship-
oriented)
Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
Key Assumption
Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish this:
Select leader to fit situation
Change situation to fit leader
Fiedler
Fiedler Model:
Model: The
The Leader
Leader
Assumption: Leaders style is fixed and can be
measured by the least preferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire.

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)

Questionnaire
The way in which a leader will evaluate
a co-worker who is not liked will
indicate whether the leader is task- or
relationship-oriented.
Cognitive
Cognitive Resource
Resource Theory
Theory
Cognitive Resource Theory
A theory of leadership that states that the level of stress
in a situation is what impacts whether a leaders
intelligence or experience will be more effective.

Research
ResearchSupport
Support
Less
Lessintelligent
intelligentindividuals
individualsperform
performbetter
betterininleadership
leadershiproles
roles
under
underhigh
highstress
stressthan
thando
domore
moreintelligent
intelligentindividuals.
individuals.
Less
Lessexperienced
experiencedpeople
peopleperform
performbetter
betterininleadership
leadershiproles
roles
under
underlow
lowstress
stressthan
thando
domore
moreexperienced
experiencedpeople.
people.
Contingency
Contingency Approach:
Approach: Hersey
Hersey and
and Blanchard
Blanchard
Situational
Situational Model
Model
Considers Leader Behaviors (Task and Relationship)
Assumes leaders can change their behaviors
Considers Followers as the Situation
Follower task maturity (ability and experience)
Follower psychological maturity (willingness to take
responsibility)
Assumptions
Leaders can and should change their style to fit their
followers degree of readiness (willingness and ability)
Therefore, it is possible to train leaders to better fit their
style to their followers.
Hersey
Hersey and
and Blanchards
Blanchards Situational
Situational Leadership
Leadership
Theory
Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers
readiness; the more ready the followers (the more
willing and able) the less the need for leader support and
supervision.

LOW Amount of Follower Readiness HIGH

Amount of Leader
Support &
HIGH Supervision Required LOW
Leadership
Leadership Styles
Styles and
and Follower
Follower Readiness
Readiness
(Hersey
(Hersey and
and Blanchard)
Blanchard)
Follower Unwilling Willing
Readiness
Supportive
Able Participative Monitoring

Leadership
Styles
High Task
Unable Directive and
Relationship
Orientations
Leader-Member
Leader-Member Exchange
Exchange Theory
Theory
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders select certain followers to be in (favorites)
based on competence and/or compatibility and similarity
to leader
Exchanges with these in followers will be higher
quality than with those who are out
Result: In subordinates will have higher performance
ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
Path-Goal
Path-Goal Theory
Theory
Premise
Leader must help followers attain
goals and reduce roadblocks to
success
Leaders must change behaviors
to fit the situation (environmental
contingencies and subordinate
contingencies)
Leader-Participation
Leader-Participation Model
Model
Premise
Rule-based decision tree to guide leaders about when
and when not to include subordinate participation in
decision making
Considers 12 contingency variables to consider
whether or not to include subordinates in decision making
Chapter THIRTEEN

Contemporary Issues
in Leadership
Framing:
Framing: Using
Using Words
Words to
to Shape
Shape Meaning
Meaning
and
and Inspire
Inspire Others
Others
Framing
A way to use language to
manage meaning

Leaders
Leadersuseuseframing
framing
(selectively
(selectivelyincluding
including
or
orexcluding
excludingfacts)
facts)to
to
influence
influencehow
howothers
others
see
seeand
andinterpret
interpret
reality.
reality.
Inspirational
Inspirational Approaches
Approaches to
to Leadership
Leadership
Charismatic Leadership Theory
Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.

Charismatic
Charismaticleaders:
leaders:
1.1. Have
Haveaavision.
vision.
2.2. Are
Arewilling
willingtototake
takepersonal
personalrisks
riskstotoachieve
achievethe
the
vision.
vision.
3.3. Are
Aresensitive
sensitivetotofollower
followerneeds.
needs.
4.4. Exhibit
Exhibitbehaviors
behaviorsthatthatare
areout
outofofthe
theordinary.
ordinary.
Key
Key Characteristics
Characteristics of
of Charismatic
Charismatic Leaders
Leaders
1. Vision and articulation. Has a visionexpressed as an
idealized goalthat proposes a future better than the status quo;
and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are
understandable to others

2. Personal risk. Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high

costs and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision

3. Environmental sensitivity. Able to make realistic

assessments of the environmental constraints and resources
needed to bring about change

4. Sensitivity to follower needs. Perceptive of others abilities

and responsive to their needs and feelings

5. Unconventional behavior. Engages in behaviors that are

perceived as novel and counter to norms
Beyond
Beyond Charismatic
Charismatic Leadership
Leadership
Level 5 Leaders
Possess a fifth dimensiona paradoxical blend of
personal humility and professional willin addition to
the four basic leadership qualities of individual
capability, team skills, managerial competence, and the
ability to stimulate others to high performance
Channel their ego needs away from themselves and
into the goal of building a great company
Transactional
Transactional and
and Transformational
Transformational Leadership
Leadership
Transactional Leaders Contingent Reward

Leaders who guide or motivate Management by

Exception (active)
their followers in the direction of
established goals by clarifying role Management by
Exception (passive)
and task requirements
Laissez-Faire

Transformational Leaders
Idealized Influence
Leaders who provide the four Is
(individualized consideration, Inspirational Motivation
inspirational motivation, idealized Intellectual Stimulation
influence, and intellectual Individual Consideration
stimulation)
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of Transactional
Transactional Leaders
Leaders
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for
effort, promises rewards for good performance,
recognizes accomplishments
Management by Exception (active): Watches and
searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes
corrective action
Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only
if standards are not met
Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making
decisions
Full
Full Range
Range of
of Leadership
Leadership Model
Model
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of Transformational
Transformational Leaders
Leaders

Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of

mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust
Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses
symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in
simple ways
Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence,
rationality, and careful problem solving
Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention,
treats each employee individually, coaches, advises
 Authentic
Authentic Leaders
Leaders and
and Ethical
Ethical Behavior
Behavior

Authentic leaders know who they are, what they

believe in and value, and act on those values openly
and candidly.
Followers see them as ethical.
Ethical leaders use ethical means to get followers to
achieve their goals, and the goals themselves are
ethical.
Ethical
Ethical Leadership
Leadership

Actions
Actions
Work
Workto topositively
positivelychange
changethethe
attitudes
attitudesand
andbehaviors
behaviorsofof
employees
employees
Engage
Engageininsocially
sociallyconstructive
constructive
behaviors
behaviors
Do
Donotnotabuse
abusepower
powerororuse
use
improper
impropermeans
meanstotoattain
attaingoals
goals
Trust:
Trust: The
The Foundation
Foundation of
of Leadership
Leadership
Trust
A positive expectation that
another will notthrough
words, actions, or decisions
act opportunistically
Trust is a history-dependent
process (familiarity) based
on relevant but limited
samples of experience (risk)
 Dimensions
Dimensions of
of Trust
Trust
Integrity Loyalty
Honesty and truthfulness The willingness to
protect and save face for
Competence another person
An individuals technical
Openness
and interpersonal
knowledge and skills Reliance on the person
to give you the full truth
Consistency
An individuals reliability,
predictability, and good
judgment in handling
situations
Three
Three Types
Types of
of Trust
Trust
Deterrence-based Trust
Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated

Knowledge-based Trust
Trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from
a history of interaction

Identification-based Trust
Trust based on a mutual understanding of one anothers
intentions and appreciation of the others wants and
desires
Basic
Basic Principles
Principles of
of Trust
Trust
Mistrust drives out trust.
Trust begets trust.
Growth often masks mistrust.
Decline or downsizing tests the highest levels of trust.
Trust increases cohesion.
Mistrusting groups self-destruct.
Mistrust generally reduces productivity.
Contemporary
Contemporary Leadership
Leadership Roles:
Roles: Providing
Providing
Team
Team Leadership
Leadership

Team
TeamLeadership
LeadershipRoles
Roles
Act
Actas
asliaisons
liaisonswith
withexternal
external
constituencies
constituencies
Serve
Serveas
astroubleshooters
troubleshooters
Managing
Managingconflict
conflict
Coaching
Coachingtotoimprove
improveteam
team
member
memberperformance
performance
Contemporary
Contemporary Leadership
Leadership Roles:
Roles: Mentoring
Mentoring
Mentor
A senior employee who Mentoring
MentoringActivities
Activities
sponsors and supports
Present
Presentideas
ideasclearly
clearly
a less-experienced
employee (a protg) Listen
Listenwell
well
Empathize
Empathize
Share
Shareexperiences
experiences
Act
Actas
asrole
rolemodel
model
Share
Sharecontacts
contacts
Provide
Providepolitical
political
guidance
guidance
Contemporary
Contemporary Leadership
Leadership Roles:
Roles: Self-Leadership
Self-Leadership

Self-Leadership Creating
CreatingSelf-Leaders
Self-Leaders
A set of processes Model
Modelself-leadership
self-leadership
through which
individuals control their Encourage
Encourageemployees
employeestoto
create
createself-set
self-setgoals
goals
own behavior.
Encourage
Encouragethe theuse
useofofself-
self-
rewards
rewards
Create
Createpositive
positivethought
thought
patterns
patterns
Create
Createaaclimate
climateofofself-
self-
leadership
leadership
Encourage
Encourageself-criticism
self-criticism
Online
Online Leadership
Leadership
Leadership at a Distance: Building Trust
The lack of face-to-face contact in electronic
communications removes the nonverbal cues that
support verbal interactions.
There is no supporting context to assist the receiver
with interpretation of an electronic communication.
The structure and tone of electronic messages can
strongly affect the response of receivers.
An individuals verbal and written communications may
not follow the same style.
Writing skills will likely become an extension of
interpersonal skills
Challenges
Challenges to
to the
the Leadership
Leadership Construct
Construct
Attribution Theory of Leadership
The idea that leadership is merely an attribution that
people make about other individuals

Qualities
QualitiesAttributed
Attributedto
toLeaders
Leaders
Leaders
Leadersareareintelligent,
intelligent,outgoing,
outgoing,have
havestrong
strongverbal
verbalskills,
skills,
are aggressive, understanding, and industrious.
are aggressive, understanding, and industrious.
Effective
Effectiveleaders
leadersareareperceived
perceivedasasconsistent
consistentand
and
unwavering
unwaveringinintheir
theirdecisions.
decisions.
Effective
Effectiveleaders
leadersproject
projectthe
theappearance
appearanceofofbeing
beingaaleader.
leader.
Finding
Finding and
and Creating
Creating Effective
Effective Leaders
Leaders
Selection
Review specific requirements for the job
Use tests that identify personal traits associated with
leadership, measure self-monitoring, and assess
emotional intelligence
Conduct personal interviews to determine candidates
fit with the job
Training
Recognize that all people are not equally trainable
Teach skills that are necessary for employees to
become effective leaders
Provide behavioral training to increase the development
potential of nascent charismatic employees