Chapter 1

Introduction to Discrete-Time
Control Systems

2009. fall
 Introduction
A rapid increase in the use of digital controllers in control
systems.
Intelligent motion in industrial robots
Optimization of fuel economy in automobiles
Refinements in the operation of appliances and machines
Decision-making capability and flexibility in the control program
major advantages.

The current trend toward digital rather than analog:

Due to the availability of low-cost digital computers and the
advantages found in working with digital signals.

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 Introduction
Types of signals
Qualtization: the process of
representing a variable by a set of
distinct values.
A discrete-time signal is a signal
defined only at discrete instants of time.
A digital signal is a discrete-time signal
with quantized amplitude and can be
represented by a sequence of
numbers.

The use of digital controller requires

quantization of signals both in
amplitude and in time.

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 Introduction
Sampling and Quantization

Image (24bits/pixel) Coarse Sampling (1/4) Coarse Quantization (3 bits/pixel)

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 Introduction
Systems dealt with in the course
A linear system
one which the principle of superposition applies
may be described by linear differential or linear difference equations
A time-invariant
The coefficients in the differential equation or difference equation do
not vary with time (i.e., one in which the properties of the system do
not change with time)
Discrete-time control systems and continuous-time
control systems
Discrete-time control systems:
One or more variables can change only at discrete instances of time
The interval between two discrete instants is taken to be sufficiently
short.
Continuous-time control systems:
Signals are continuous in time
Described by differential equations

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 Introduction
Sampling processes
The sampling of a continuous-time signal replaces the original
continuous-time signal by a sequence of values at discrete time
points.
The sampling process is usually followed by a quantization
process.
It is important to note that occasionally the sampling operation is
entirely fictitious and has been introduced to simplify the analysis
of control systems.

Many digital control systems are based on continuous-time

design techniques.
A thorough knowledge of them is highly valuable in designing
discrete-time control systems.

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 Digital Control Systems

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 Digital Control Systems
Signal Forms in a Digital Control System

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 Digital Control Systems
Sample-and-Hold (S/H)
A circuit that receives an analog input signal and holds this
signal at a constant value for a specified period of time.
Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)
A device that converts an analog signal into a digital signal,
usually a numerically coded signal.
Such a converter is need as an interface between an analog
component and a digital component.
A S/H is often a integral part of a commercially available A/D
converter.
The approximation process by the limited number of bits is
called quantization.
Digital-to-Analog Converter (D/A)
A device that converts a digital signal into an analog signal.
A converter is needed as an interface between a digital
component and an analog component.

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 Digital Control Systems
Plant or Process
Any physical object to be controlled.
The most difficult part in the design of control systems may lie in
the accurate modeling of a physical plant or process.
In designing a digital controller, it is necessary to recognize the fact
that the mathematical model of a plant or process in many cases is
only an approximation of the physical one.
Transducer
A device that converts an input signal into an output signal of
another form.
Ex: converting a pressure signal into a voltage output

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 Digital Control Systems
Types of sampling operations
Periodic sampling
The sampling instants are equally spaced (tk).
The most conventional type of sampling operation.
Multiple-order sampling
The pattern of the tks is repeated periodically.
Multiple-rate sampling
A digital control system may have different sampling periods in
different feedback paths or may have multiple sampling rates.
To sample slowly in a loop involving a large time constant, while in a
loop involving only small time constants the sampling rate must be fast.
Random sampling
The sampling instants are random, or tk is a random variable.

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 Quantization and Quanization Error
Quantizing
The process of representing a continuous or analog signal by a
finite number of discrete states.
The quatization level Q is defined as the range between two
adjacent decision points: FSR
Q n
FSR:full-scale range
2
Quantization Error
A/D conversion results in a finite resolution.
Varies between 0 and Q.

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 Quantization and Quanization Error
Quantization Error (cont.)

e(t ) x(t ) y (t )

0 e(t ) 12 Q

For a small quantization level Q, the nature of the quantization

error is similar to that of random noise.

1 Q2 2 Q2
E e(t ) e (t ) Q d
2 2

Q 2 2

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Operations involved in the signal conversion:
Multiplexing and demultiplexing
Sample and hold
Analog-to-digital conversion (quantizing and encoding)
Digital-to-analog conversion (decoding)

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Analog multiplexer
A device that performs the function of time-sharing an A/D
converter among many analog channels.
At a given instant of time, only one switch is in the on position.
During the connection time the S/H samples the signal voltage
and holds its value, while the ADC converts the analog value into
digital data (binary numbers).

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Demultiplexer
A device separates the composite output digital data from the
digital controller into the original channels.
Sample-and-Hold Circuits
A sampler converts an
analog signal into a train of
amplitude-modulated
pulses.
The hold circuit holds the
value of the sampled pulse
signal over a specified
period of time.

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Sample-and-Hold Circuits (cont.)
Two modes of operation:
The tracking mode when the switch is closed, the charge on the
capacitor in the circuit tracks the input voltage.
Hold mode when the switch is open, the operating mode is the
hold mode and the capacitor voltages holds constant for a specified
time of period.

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Types of ADCs
Successive-approximation type
Integrating type
Counter type
Parallel type

Successive-approximation type
ADC

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Errors in ADCs

Digital-to-Analog Converters
DAC using weighted registers
DAC using an R-2R ladder circuits

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Digital-to-Analog Converters (cont.)
DAC using weighted registers

Ro b b b
Vo b3 2 1 0 Vref
R 2 4 8

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Digital-to-Analog Converters (cont.)
DAC using an R-2R ladder circuits
1 1 1
Vo bn 1 bn 2 n 1 b0 Vref
2 2 2

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Reconstructing the Input Signal by Hold Circuits
The purpose of the hold operation is to fill the spaces between
sampling periods and this roughly reconstruct the original analog
input signal.
Zero-order hold

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 Data Acquisition, Conversion, and
Distribution Systems
Reconstructing the Input Signal by Hold Circuits (cont.)
First-order hold

Polygonal hold

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 Concluding Comments
Digital controllers and Analog controllers
Digital controllers
operate only on numbers.
are extremely versatile.
Operations being performed can be changed by simply issuing a
new program.
Digital components are rugged in construction, highly reliable, and
often compact and lightweight.
Digital control of processes
It is possible to take into account all process variables, and
thereby to accomplish optimal control of industrial processes.
Flexibility : ease of changing control schemes by
reprogramming.

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