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14 Cryptography

This document provides an overview of cryptography and cryptographic concepts. It begins with an introduction to cryptography and encryption/decryption processes. It then discusses different types of cryptographic ciphers such as restricted ciphers, symmetric algorithms, and public key algorithms. Specific classical cryptosystems like the Caesar cipher are also explained through examples. The document covers important cryptographic terms and concepts throughout.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

196 views

14 Cryptography

Uploaded by

Priyank Paliwal

Available Formats

Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Distributed Systems

Introduction to Cryptography

Paul Krzyzanowski
[email protected]
[email protected]

Except as otherwise noted, the content of this presentation is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5 License.
Page 1
Ngywioggazhon Pystemp
Auesfnsicutiwf & Moiiunocaiwn
Piqtoaoyp

Page 2
Cryptographic Systems
Authentication & Communication
Protocols

Page 3
cryptography

hidden writing

A secret manner of writing, Generally, the art of

writing or solving ciphers.
Oxford English Dictionary

Page 4
cryptology

hidden speaking

1967 D. Kahn, Codebreakers p. xvi, Cryptology is the

science that embraces cryptography and cryptanalysis,
but the term cryptology sometimes loosely designates
the entire dual field of both rendering signals secure
and extracting information from them.
Oxford English Dictionary

Page 5
Cryptography Security

Cryptography may be a component of a secure

system

Adding cryptography may not make a system

secure

Page 6
Terms

Plaintext (cleartext), message M

encryption, E(M)

produces ciphertext, C=E(M)

decryption: M=D(C)

Cryptographic algorithm, cipher

Page 7
Terms: types of ciphers

restricted cipher

symmetric algorithm

public key algorithm

Page 8
Restricted cipher

Secret algorithm
Leaking
Reverse engineering
HD DVD (Dec 2006) and Blu-Ray (Jan 2007)
RC4
All digital cellular encryption algorithms
DVD and DIVX video compression
Firewire
Enigma cipher machine
Every NATO and Warsaw Pact algorithm during Cold War

Page 9
The key

BTW, the above is a bump key. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_bumping.

Page 10
The key

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_tumbler_lock
Page 11
The key

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_tumbler_lock
Page 12
The key

We understand how it
works:
Strengths
Weaknesses

Based on this
understanding, we can
assess how much to trust
the key & lock.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_tumbler_lock
Page 13
Symmetric algorithm

Secret key

C = EK(M )

M = DK(C )

Page 14
Public key algorithm

public key and private keys

C1 = Epublic(M )
M = Dprivate(C1 )

also:

C2 = Eprivate(M )
M = Dpublic(C2 )

Page 15
McCarthys puzzle (1958)

Two countries are at war

One country sends spies to the other country
To return safely, spies must give the border
guards a password

Spies can be trusted

Guards chat information given to them may
leak

Page 16
McCarthys puzzle

Challenge
How can a guard authenticate a person without
knowing the password?

Enemies cannot use the guards knowledge to

introduce their own spies

Page 17
Solution to McCarthys puzzle

Michael Rabin, 1958

Use one-way function, B=f(A)

Guards get B
Enemy cannot compute A
Spies give A, guards compute f(A)
If the result is B, the password is correct.

Example function:
Middle squares
Take a 100-digit number (A), and square it
Let B = middle 100 digits of 200-digit result

Page 18
One-way functions

Easy to compute in one direction

Difficult to compute in the other

Examples:
Factoring:
pq = N EASY
find p,q given N DIFFICULT
Discrete Log:
ab mod c = N EASY
find b given a, c, N DIFFICULT

Page 19
McCarthys puzzle example

Example with an 18 digit number

A = 289407349786637777
A2 = 83756614110525308948445338203501729
110525308948445338
Middle square, B = 110525308948445338

Given A, it is easy to compute B

Given B, it is extremely hard to compute A

Page 20
More terms

one-way function
Rabin, 1958: McCarthys problem
middle squares, exponentiation,
[one-way] hash function
message digest, fingerprint, cryptographic
checksum, integrity check
encrypted hash
message authentication code
only possessor of key can validate message

Page 21
More terms

Stream cipher
Encrypt a message a character at a time

Block cipher
Encrypt a message a chunk at a time

Page 22
Yet another term

Digital Signature
Authenticate, not encrypt message
Use pair of keys (private, public)
Owner encrypts message with private key
Sender validates by decrypting with public key
Generally use hash(message).

Page 23
Cryptography: what is it good for?

Authentication
determine origin of message
Integrity
verify that message has not been modified
Nonrepudiation
sender should not be able to falsely deny that a
message was sent
Confidentiality
others cannot read contents of the message

Page 24
Cryptographic toolbox

Symmetric encryption
Public key encryption
One-way hash functions
Random number generators

Page 25
Classic Cryptosystems

Page 26
Substitution Ciphers

Page 27
Csar cipher

Earliest documented military use of cryptography

Julius Caesar c. 60 BC
shift cipher: simple variant of a substitution cipher
each letter replaced by one n positions away
modulo alphabet size
n = shift value = key

Similar scheme used in India

early Indians also used substitutions based on phonetics
similar to pig latin

Last seen as ROT13 on usenet to keep the reader from

seeing offensive messages unwillingly

Page 28
Csar cipher

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z

Page 29
Csar cipher

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
shift alphabet by n (6)

Page 30
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

Page 31
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

Page 32
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

Page 33
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSW

Page 34
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWU

Page 35
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUN

Page 36
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNB

Page 37
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBU

Page 38
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBUM

Page 39
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBUMZ

Page 40
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBUMZF

Page 41
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBUMZFY

Page 42
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBUMZFYU

Page 43
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBMUFZYUM

Page 44
Csar cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

GSWUNBMUFZYUM
Convey one piece of information for decryption:
shift value

trivially easy to crack (26 possibilities for a 26

character alphabet)

Page 45
Ancient Hebrew variant (ATBASH)

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
Z Y XWV U T S R Q P O NM L K J I H G F E D C B A

NBXZGSZHUOVZH
c. 600 BC
No information (key) needs to be conveyed!

Page 46
Substitution cipher

MY CAT HAS FLEAS

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
M P S R L Q E A J T N C I F Z WO Y B X G K U D V H

IVSMXAMBQCLMB
General case: arbitrary mapping
both sides must have substitution alphabet

Page 47
Substitution cipher

Easy to decode:
vulnerable to frequency analysis

Moby Dick Shakespeare

(1.2M chars) (55.8M chars)

e 12.300% e 11.797%
o 7.282% o 8.299%
d 4.015% d 3.943%
b 1.773% b 1.634%
x 0.108% x 0.140%

Page 48
Statistical Analysis

Letter frequencies
E: 12%
A, H, I, N, O, R, S, T: 6 9%
D, L: 4%
B, C, F, G, M, P, U, W, Y: 1.5 2.8%
J, K, Q, V, X, Z: < 1%
Common digrams:
TH, HE, IN, ER, AN, RE,
Common trigrams
THE, ING, AND, HER, ERE,

Page 49
Polyalphabetic ciphers
Designed to thwart frequency analysis techniques
different ciphertext symbols can represent the
same plaintext symbol
1 many relationship between
letter and substitute
Leon Battista Alberti: 1466: invented key
two disks J
line up predetermined letter on A
inner disk with outer disk
plaintext on inner ciphertext on
outer
after n symbols, the disk is rotated to
a new alignment encrypt: AJ
decrypt: J A
Page 50
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

Blaise de Vigenre, court of Henry III of France, 1518

Use table and key word to encipher a message
repeat keyword over text: (e.g. key=FACE)
FA CEF ACE FACEF ....
MY CAT HAS FLEAS
encrypt: find intersection:
row = keyword letter
column = plaintext letter
decrypt: column = keyword letter, search for
intersection = ciphertext letter
message is encrypted with as many substitution ciphers
as there are letters in the keyword

Page 51
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

plaintext letter

A B C D E F G H I J K L MNO P Q R S T
A B C D E F G H I J K L MNO P Q R S T
B C D E F G H I J K L MNO P Q R S T U
C D E F G H I J K L MNO P Q R S T U V
D E F G H I J K L MN O P Q R S T U VW
keytext E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X
letter F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y

ciphertext letter

Page 52
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
R

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B C
E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B C D
F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B C D E
G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B C D E F
H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z A B C D E F G

Page 53
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY

Page 54
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY E

Page 55
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EE

Page 56
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY

Page 57
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY H

Page 58
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HC

Page 59
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW

Page 60
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW K

Page 61
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW KL

Page 62
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW KLG

Page 63
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW KLGE

Page 64
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

FA CEF ACE FACEF

MY CAT HAS FLEAS
RY EEY HCW KLGEX

Page 65
Vigenre polyalphabetic cipher

"The rebels reposed their major trust, however, in the

Vigenere, sometimes using it in the form of a brass cipher
disc. In theory, it was an excellent choice, for so far as the
South knew the cipher was unbreakable. In practice, it
proved a dismal failure. For one thing, transmission errors
that added or subtracted a letter ... unmeshed the key from
the cipher and caused no end of difficulty. Once Major
Cunningham of General Kirby-Smith's staff tried for twelve
hours to decipher a garbled message; he finally gave up in
disgust and galloped around the Union flank to the sender
to find out what it said."

http://rz1.razorpoint.com/index.html
Page 66
Transposition Ciphers

Page 67
Transposition ciphers

Permute letters in plaintext according to

rules

Knowledge of rules will allow message to be

decrypted

Earliest version used by the Spartans in the

5th century BC staff cipher

Page 68
Transposition ciphers: staff cipher

MYCATHASFLEAS

MHE

M
H
E

Page 69
Transposition ciphers: staff cipher

MYCATHASFLEAS

MHE YAA

Y
A
A

Page 70
Transposition ciphers: staff cipher

MYCATHASFLEAS

MHE YAA CSS

C
S
S

Page 71
Transposition ciphers: staff cipher

MYCATHASFLEAS

MHE YAA CSS AFx

A
F Pad out the text. This is a
x block cipher versus a
stream cipher

Page 72
Transposition ciphers: staff cipher

MYCATHASFLEAS

MHE YAA CSS Afx TLy

T
L
y

Page 73
Transposition cipher

Table version of staff cipher

enter data horizontally, read it vertically
secrecy is the width of the table

M Y C A
T H A S
MYCATHASFLEAS
F L E A
S x y z

Page 74
Transposition cipher

Table version of staff cipher

enter data horizontally, read it vertically
secrecy is the width of the table

M Y C A
T H A S
MYCATHASFLEAS MTFS
F L E A
S x y z

Page 75
Transposition cipher

Table version of staff cipher

enter data horizontally, read it vertically
secrecy is the width of the table

M Y C A
T H A S
MYCATHASFLEAS MTFSYHLx
F L E A
S x y z

Page 76
Transposition cipher

Table version of staff cipher

enter data horizontally, read it vertically
secrecy is the width of the table

M Y C A
T H A S
MYCATHASFLEAS MTFSYHLxCAEy
F L E A
S x y z

Page 77
Transposition cipher

Table version of staff cipher

enter data horizontally, read it vertically
secrecy is the width of the table

M Y C A
T H A S
MYCATHASFLEAS MTFSYHLxCAEyASAz
F L E A
S x y z

Page 78
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S
F L E A
S x y z

Page 79
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S YHLx
F L E A
S x y z

YHLx

Page 80
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S YHLxASAz
F L E A
S x y z
ASAz

Page 81
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S YHLxASAzMTFS
F L E A
S x y z

MTFS

Page 82
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S YHLxASAzMTFSCAEy
F L E A
S x y z
CAEy

Page 83
Transposition cipher with key

permute letters in plaintext according to key

read down columns, sorting by key

Key: 3 1 4 2
M Y C A
MYCATHASFLEAS T H A S YHLxASAzMTFSCAEY
F L E A
S x y z

Page 84
Combined ciphers

Combine transposition with substitution

ciphers
German ADFGVX cipher (WWI)

can be troublesome to implement

may require a lot of memory
may require that messages be certain lengths

Difficult with manual cryptography

Page 85
Electro-mechanical
cryptographic engines

Page 86
Rotor machines

1920s: mechanical devices used for automating

encryption
rotor machine
set of independently rotating cylinders through
which electrical pulses flow
each cylinder has input & output pin for each letter
of the alphabet
implements version of Vigenre cipher
each rotor implements a substitution cipher
output of each rotor is fed into the next rotor

Page 87
Rotor machines