Computer Organization and

Architecture
Introduction to computer System and
its sub modules

There are two basic types of electrical signals, namely,

analog and digital. The analog signals are
continuous in nature and digital signals are discrete in
nature.

The electronic device that works with continuous

signals is known as analog device and the electronic
device that works with discrete signals is known as
digital device.

We use 0 to represent LOW and 1 to represent HIGH.

Computer Architecture
Computer architecture refers to those
parameters of a computer system that are
visible to a programmer or those parameters
that have a direct impact on the logical
execution of a program.

Examples of architectural attributes include the

instruction set, the number of bits used to
represent different data types, I/O mechanisms,
and techniques for addressing memory.

Department of ECE, K L University

Computer Organization
Computer organization refers to the
operational units and their interconnections
that realize the architectural specifications.

Examples of organizational attributes include

those hardware details transparent to the
programmer, such as control signals, interfaces
between the computer and peripherals, and the
memory technology used.
Basic Computer Model and
different units of Computer
Central Processor Unit,
Input Unit,
Output Unit,
Memory Unit
Number System & Representation

Decimal Number System (0-9)

Octal Number System (0-7)
Hexa-Decimal Number System (0-F)
Binary Number System (0, 1)
 Representation of Real Number

Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011

Therefore any real number can be converted to binary number system

There are two schemes to represent real number :

1) Fixed-point representation

2) Floating-point representation
Fixed-point representation:

Binary representation of 41.6875 is 101001.1011

To store this number, we have to store two information,

-- the part before decimal point and

-- the part after decimal point.

This is known as fixed-point representation where the position of

decimal point is fixed and number of bits before and after decimal
point are also predefined.
Floating-point representation:

In this representation, numbers are represented by a mantissa comprising

the significant digits and an exponent part of Radix R. The format is:

Numbers are often normalized, such that the decimal point is placed to
the right of the first non zero digit.

For example, the decimal number,

To store this number in floating point representation, we store 5236 in

mantissa part and 3 in exponent part.
Signed Integer

Range of natural numbers is 0 to 2n-1

By including ve numbers -2n-1-1 to 2n-1-1
If we consider 8-bit number, then range of
natural number is from 0-255
For signed integer range is from -127 to 127

Signed Magnitude Form

If MSB = 0 then it is +ve and if MSB = 1 then it is ve
Representation of Signed Integer in 1s complement form

01011100
10100011
11111111
By adding 1 to the result, it is 0

Representation of Signed Integer in 2s complement form

01011100
10100100
100000000
 Arithmetic & Logical Unit
Consider an ALU which can perform four arithmetic
operations and four logical operations To distinguish
between arithmetic and logical operation, we may use a
signal line,
0 - in that signal, represents an arithmetic operation and
1 - in that signal, represents a logical operation.
Memory
1. Concept of Memory.
2. Cache Memory.
3. Memory Management
4. Virtual memory

The memory of computer is broadly categories into two categories:

Internal Memory or Primary Memory

External Memory or Secondary Memory

Primary Memory
RAM: Random Access Memories are volatile in nature.
As soon as the computer is switched off, the contents
of memory are also lost.
Types: SRAM, DRAM

ROM: Read only memories are non volatile in nature.

The storage is permanent, but it is read only memory.
We can not store new information in ROM.
Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, UVPROM
Main Memory Organization

16X4 Means 16 Locations & 4 bits in each Location

Read Retrieve data from memory to CPU

registers
Write Store data to memory from CPU registers

To transfer data we require data bus

To specify or to identify a particular memory

location we require address bus
The data transfer between main memory and the CPU takes
place through two CPU registers.

MAR : Memory Address Register

MDR : Memory Data Register.

If the MAR is k-bit long, then the total addressable memory

location will be 2k.

If the MDR is n-bit long, then the n bit of data is transferred

in one memory cycle.
Binary Storage Cell
Depending on the technology used to construct a RAM, there are two
types of RAM

SRAM: Static Random Access Memory.

DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory

DRAM SRAM
SRAM & DRAM both are volatile

DRAM packing density is more & Less expensive

DRAM requires supporting refresh circuitry

SRAM is faster than DRAM

 Cache Memory
It is the fact that CPU is a faster device and memory is a relatively slower
device.

Memory access is the main bottleneck for the performance efficiency. If a

faster memory device can be inserted between main memory and CPU, the
efficiency can be increased.

The faster memory that is inserted between CPU and Main Memory is termed
as Cache memory.
Memory Management
In an Uni-programming system, main memory is divided into two parts :
one part for the operating system and the other part for the program
currently being executed.

In multiprogramming system, the user part of memory is subdivided to

accommodate multiple processes.

The task of subdivision is carried out dynamically by the operating

system and is known as memory management.
To utilize the idle time of CPU, some of the process must be off loaded
from the memory and new process must be brought to this memory
place. This is known swapping.

Partitioning
1) Fixed size partitions
2) Variable size partitions
Paging

The memory is partitioned into equal fixed size chunks that are
relatively small. This chunk of memory is known as frames or page
frames.

Each process is also divided into small fixed chunks of same size.
The chunks of a program is known as pages.

At a given point of time some of the frames in memory are in use and
some are free. The list of free frame is maintained by the operating
system.
Virtual Memory
The virtual address space is used to develop a process. The special
hardware unit , called Memory Management Unit (MMU) translates
virtual address to physical address. When the desired data is in the main
memory, the CPU can work with these data. If the data are not in the
main memory, the MMU causes the operating system to bring into the
memory from the disk.
 Control Unit

To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU must

generate the required control signal in the proper sequence.

To generate the control signal in proper sequence, a wide

variety of techniques exist. Most of these techniques, however,
fall into one of the two categories,

Hardwired Control :

Microprogrammed Control :
Hardwired Control : In this hardwired control techniques, the control
signals are generated by means of hardwired circuit. The main objective
of control unit is to generate the control signal in proper sequence.
Eg: Programmable Logic Array
Microprogrammed Control
There is an alternative approach by which the control signals
required inside the CPU can be generated . This alternative
approach is known as microprogrammed control unit.

In microprogrammed control unit, the logic of the control unit is

specified by a microprogram.

A microprogrammed control unit is a relatively simple logic

circuit that is capable of (1) sequencing through
microinstructions and (2) generating control signals to execute
each microinstruction.
Control Word (CW) :

Control word is defined as a word whose individual bits

represent the various control signal.
The individual control words in this microprogram are
referred to as microinstructions.
Instruction Set
The operation of a CPU is determine by the
instruction it executes, referred to as machine
instructions or computer instructions. The
collection of different instructions is referred as
the instruction set of the CPU.

Each instruction must contain the information

required by the CPU for execution.
It is difficult to deal with binary representation of
machine instructions. Thus, it has become common
practice to use a symbolic representation of machine
instructions.

Opcodes are represented by abbreviations, called

mnemonics, that indicate the operations

A simple instruction format

The instruction set of a CPU can be categorized as follows:

1. Data Processing:

2. Data Storage:

3. Data Movement:

4. Control:

Types of Operands

1. Addresses:

2. Numbers:

3. Characters:

4. Logical Data:
Types of Operations
Data Transfer
Arithmetic
Logical
Conversion
Input Output [ I/O ]
System Control
Transfer Control
 A. Data Transfer
Move (Transfer) --------Transfer word or block from source to destination

Store ----------------------Transfer word from processor to memory

Load (fetch) -------------Transfer word from memory to processor

Exchange ----------------Swap contents of source and destination

Clear (reset)------------- Transfer word of 0s to destination

Set -------------------------Transfer word of 1s to destination

Push -----------------------Transfer word from source to top of stack

Pop -------------------------Transfer word from top of stack to destination

B. Arithmetic
Add --------------Compute sum of two operands

Subtract --------Compute difference of two operands

Multiply ---------Compute product of two operands

Divide -----------Compute quotient of two operands

Absolute --------Replace operand by its absolute value

Negate ----------Change sign of operand

Increment ------Add 1 to operand

Decrement -----Subtract 1 from operand

 Logical:
AND -----------------------Performs the logical operation AND bitwise
OR--------------------------Performs the logical operation OR bitwise
NOT -----------------------Performs the logical operation NOT bitwise
Exclusive OR -------------Performs the specified logical operation
Exclusive-OR bitwise
Test --------------------------Test specified condition; set flag(s) based on
outcome
Compare -------------------Make logical or arithmetic comparison Set
flag(s) based on outcome
Set Control Variables------Class of instructions to set controls for
protection purposes, interrupt handling, timer control etc.
Shift -----------------------Left (right) shift operand, introducing constant
at end
Rotate --------------------Left (right) shift operation, with wraparound
end
Input/output :
Input (Read)----- Transfer data from specified I/O port or
device to destination (e.g., main memory or processor
register)

Output (Write)----Transfer data from specified source to I/O

port or device.

Start I/O------------ Transfer instructions to I/O processor to

initiate I/O operation.

Test I/O --------------Transfer status information from I/O

system to specified destination
System Control:

System control instructions are those

which are used for system setting and it
can be used only in privileged state.

Typically, these instructions are reserved

for the use of operating systems.
Transfer of Control:
The most common transfer-of-control
operations found in instruction set are:

Branch

Skip

Procedure call.
BRP X ----Branch to location X if result is positive
BRN X ---- Branch to location X if result is negative
BRZ X----- Branch to location X is result is zero
BRO X----- Branch to location X if overflow occurs
Jump (branch) Unconditional transfer, load PC with specific
address
Jump conditional Test specific condition; either load PC with
specific address or do nothing, based on condition

Jump to subroutine Place current program control

information in known location; jump to specific address

Return Replace contents of PC and other register from

known location

Skip Increment PC to skip next instruction

Skip Conditional Test specified condition; either skip or do

nothing based on condition

Halt Stop program execution

Instruction Format:
Design of ALU
Machine Language
A processor can understand and execute
machine instructions. Such instructions
are simply binary numbers stored in the
computer.
If a programmer wished to program
directly in machine language, then it would
be necessary to enter the program as
binary data.
 N=I+J+K

1. Load the contents of location 201 into the AC.

2. Add the contents of location 202 to the AC.

3. Add the contents of location 203 to the AC.

4. Store the contents of the AC in location 204.

Assembly Language
Assembly language is a programming language that is one step
away from machine language.

Typically, each assembly language instruction is translated into

one machine instruction by the assembler.

Assembly language is hardware dependent, with a different

assembly language for each type of processor

I1: Move R3, R7 /R3 (R7)

I2: Load R8, (R3) /R8 Memory (R3)

I3: Add R3, R3, 4 /R3 (R3) + 4

I4: Load R9, (R3) /R9 Memory (R3)

I5: BLE R8, R9, L3 /Branch if (R9) > (R8)

Compiler: It is a program which translates a high level language
program into a machine language program.

Interpreter: An interpreter is a program which translates statements of a

program into machine code. It translates only one statement of the
program at a time.

Linker: In high level languages, some built in header files or libraries

are stored. These libraries are predefined and these contain basic
functions which are essential for executing the program. These
functions are linked to the libraries by a program called Linker.

Loader: Loader is a program that loads machine codes of a program

into the system memory. In Computing, a loader is the part of
an Operating System that is responsible for loading programs.