PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Psychological Test
Measurement instrument that consists of a
sample of behavior obtained under
standardized conditions and evaluated using
established scoring rules.
 Why is Psychological Testing Important?
1. Allows us to make important decisions about
people.
e.g. Early School Placement, College Entrance Decisions, Military Job Selections

2. Allows us to describe & understand behaviour

3. Measures personal attributes
4. Measures performance
5. Saves time
6. Most economical
7. Its Scientific
Types of Reasoning Associated
with Psychological Testing

Inductive Reasoning - from Data to General

Theory.

Deductive Reasoning - from General Theory to

Data.
 Characteristics of Psychological
Instruments

Behaviour Sampling
Standardization
Scoring Rules
 Behaviour Sampling
It is a sample of behaviour.
It is not an exhaustive measure - it is too difficult to
evaluate every behavior.
Attempts to approximate the exhaustive procedure.
Does not necessarily require the respondent to engage in
overt behavior.
The test must somehow be representative of behaviours
that would be observed outside of the testing situation
 Standardization
The behavior sample is obtained under standardized
conditions.

Each individual taking a psychological or educational test

should be tested under essentially identical conditions.
For example, SAT administration instructions pertain to:
Seating Arrangements, Lighting Conditions, Noise Levels
Interruptions, Answering common questions

Standardization is vital because many test results are

referential in nature: Your performance is measured relative
to everybody elses performance.
 Standardization (cont.)
Standardization reduces between subject variability due
to extraneous variables.

Standardization is easier to obtain with tests designed to

be administered en masse.

Tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, which

are administered individually, are less standardized.

The individual giving the test is an important variable.

They take special training to standardize the way they
give the test.
 Scoring Rules
There are established scoring rules for obtaining quantitative
information from the behavior sample.

Objective Scoring Rules : Most mass produced tests fall into this
category. Different qualified examiners will all come to the same score
for an identical set of responses.

Subjective Scoring Rules : When the judgement of the examiner is an

important part of the test, different examiners can legitimately come to
different conclusions concerning the same sample of behavior. There
conclusions should be similar, however.

Good standardized psychological tests all have a set of rules or

procedures for scoring responses to a test.
 Types of Tests
Most psychological tests can be sorted into 3
general categories:

1. Tests in which the subject performs a task.

2. Tests that involve observations of the subjects

behaviour within a particular context.

3. Self-report measures
 Tests of Performance
Referred to as "Tests of Maximal Performance"
Subjects are given a well-defined task that they try to perform
successfully.
Participant must know what he/she must
do in response to the task.

The subject exerts maximal effort to

succeed.

Performance tests are designed to uncover what

an individual can do, given the specific test
conditions.
Examples
- Intelligence Tests, language proficiency
- Biology test, flight simulator
 Behaviour Observation
Naturalistic observation
Involves observing the subjects behaviour and responses
in a particular context.
Differs from performance tests in that the subject does
not have a single, well defined task.
The observer can record duration &
intensity
Examples
- Examiner might observe children interacting
or an individual having a conversation or some other social interaction.
- Companies recruit observers to pose as salespeople to observe
employees behaviors. Subjects may be unaware they are being tested.
 Self Report Instruments
- Participant is asked to report his or her feelings,
attitudes, beliefs, values.

When self-report makes sense:

Self-report relies upon the test takers awareness and
honesty.
It is the best method to measure internal states - things
only the person themselves can be aware of and judge.

People are not always good judges of their ability

Provides an estimate
Self Report Instruments (cont.)
Many personality inventories such as the MMPI and the
16PF measures are based on self-report.

Clinicians include self-report measures as part of their

initial examinations of presenting clients.

Self-Report measures are frequently subject to self-

censorship.

People know their responses are being measured and

wish to be seen in a favorable light. (self-serving bias)

Items are frequently included to measure the extent to

which people provide socially desirable responses.
 History of Test Development
circa 1000 BC. : Chinese introduced written tests to help fill civil
service positions Civil Laws, Military Affairs, Agriculture, Geography
1850 : The United States begins civil service examinations.
1885 : Germans tested people for brain damage
1890 : James Cattell develops a "mental test" to assess college
students . Test includes measures of strength, resistance to pain, and
reaction time.
1905 : Binet-Simon scale of mental development used to classify
mentally retarded children in France.
1914 : World War I produces need in U.S. to quickly classify incoming
recruits. Army Alpha test and Army Beta test developed. Looked at
psychopathology.
1916 : Terman develops Stanford - Binet test and develops the idea of
Intelligence Quotient
 History of Test Development
(cont.)
1920 - 1940 : factor analysis, projective tests, and personality
inventories first appear.
1941-1960 : vocational interest measures developed
1961-1980 : item response theory and neuropsychological testing
developed
1980 - Present : Wide spread adaptation of computerized testing.

"Smart" Tests which can give each individual different test items
develop
 Early Abuses of Tests in
America
Goddard (1906) began testing 378 residents and categorized them
as
Idiot (ma below 2), imbecile (3-7), feebleminded (8-12), moron
(foolish)

MA four years behind, were feebleminded

Goddards desire was to separate people out

Believed feeble minded people were the cause of most social
problems (thievery, laziness, alcoholism, prostitution, immorality).
 Early Abuses of Tests in
America
Called for the colonization of morons to restrict their
breeding. Further, he believed that many immigrants were
feeble minded.

Went to Ellis Island, administered tests translated from

French to English to Yiddish, Hungarian, , Italian, Russian, to
farmers, laborers, who had just crossed the Atlantic. Then
interpreted results based on French norms.

Favored deportation for low IQ immigrants but then also in

a humanitarian gesture said we might be able to use moron
laborer if only we are wise enough to train them properly.
 Early Abuses of Tests in America
(cont.)
Robert Yerkes, a Harvard psychology prof. Convinced the
Department of War that it should test all of its 1.75 million
recruits for intelligence tests, so they could be classified and
given appropriate assignments (Goddard and Terman also
chaired this committee).

Army Alpha and Army Beta Examinations

Produced evidence that supported segregation. Sounded dire

warnings that racial intermixture would inevitably cause a
deterioration of American intelligence. Later recanted:
without foundation Probably the result of cultural and
language differences.
 Application of Psychological
Measurement

Educational Testing
Personnel Testing
Clinical Testing
 Educational Testing
Intelligence tests and achievement tests are used from an early
age in the U.S and Canada. From kindergarten on, tests are used
for placement and advancement.

Educational institutions have to make admissions and

advancement decisions regarding students. e.g, SAT, GRE,
subject placement tests

Used to assess students for special education programs. Also,

used in diagnosing learning difficulties.

Guidance counselors use instruments for advising students.

Investigates school curriculum.
 Personnel Testing
Following WW I, business began taking an active interest in
testing job applicants. Most government jobs require some civil
service examination.

Tests are used to assess: training needs, workers performance in

training, success in training programs, management development,
leadership training, and selection.

For example, at the Lally School of Management, the Myers

-Briggs type indicator is used extensively to assess managerial
potential. Type testing is used to hopefully match the right person
with the job they are most suited for.
 Clinical Testing
Tests of Psychological Adjustment and tests which can
classify and/or diagnose patients are used extensively.

Psychologist generally use a number of objective and

projective personality tests.

Neuropsychological tests which examine basic mental

function also fall into this category. Perceptual tests are
used detecting and diagnosing brain damage.
 Testing Activities of Psychologists
Clinical Psychologists - e.g. Assessment of Intelligence, Assessment of
Psychopathology
Counseling Psychologists
e.g. Career Interest Inventories, Skill Assessment
School Psychologists
e.g. Assessment of Academic progress, Readiness for School,
Social Adjustment
I/O Psychologists - e.g. Managerial potential,
Training Needs, Leadership Potential
Neuropsychologists - e.g., Assessment of Brain Damage, neurological
impairments.
Forensic Psychology - intersection between law and psychology --needed
for legal determinations
e.g. Assessment for risk, competency to stand trial, child custody
 Information About Tests
The Mental Measurement Yearbook - A guide to all
currently available psychological tests.

The MMY uses content classifications do describe tests:

1. Achievement 2. Behavior Assessment
3. Developmental 4. Education
5. English & Language 6. Fine Arts
7. Foreign Languages 8. Intelligence and Aptitude
9. Mathematics 10. Neuropsychological
11. Personality 12. Reading
13. Science 14. Sensory-Motor
15. Social Studies 16. Speech and Hearing
17. Vocations
 Ethics In Psychological Testing
Given the widespread use of tests, there is considerable
potential for abuse.

A good deal of attention has therefore been devoted to

the development and enforcement of professional and
legal standards.

The American Psychological Association (APA) has

taken a leading role in the development of professional
standards for testing.
 American Psychological Association Ethical
Guidelines:
The investigator has the responsibility to make a careful evaluation of its
ethical acceptability.

The investigator is obliged to observe stringent safeguards to protect the

rights of human participants.

The researcher must evaluate whether participants are considered Subject at

risk or Subject at minimal risk - No appreciable risk (physical risk,
mental harm).
 American Psychological Association Ethical
Guidelines:

The principal investigator always retains the responsibility for ensuring

ethical practice in research. That is, the principal researcher is responsible
for the ethical practices of collaborators, assistants, employees, etc. (all of
whom are also responsible for their own ethical behavior).

Except in minimal-risk research, the investigator establishes a clear and fair

agreement with participants that clarifies the obligations and responsibilities
of each. Must explain all aspects of the research that may influence the
subjects decision to participate. Explains all other aspects that the
participants inquire about.
American Psychological Association Ethical
Guidelines (cont.):
In research involving concealment or deception, the research
considers the special responsibilities involved.

Individuals freedom to decline, and freedom to withdraw, is

respected.
Researcher is responsible for protecting participants from physical
and mental discomfort, harm, and danger that may arise from
research procedures. If there are risks, the participants must be
aware of this fact.
American Psychological Association Ethical
Guidelines (cont.):

After the data are collected the investigator provides participants

with information about the nature of the study and attempts to
remove any misconceptions that may have arisen.

The investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove any

undesirable consequences to the participant that may occur due to
the research.

The information obtained from the participant should be treated

confidentially unless otherwise agreed upon with the participant.
 Informed Consent
Participants must be fully informed as to the purpose and
nature of the research that they are going to be involved
in.

Participants must be fully informed about the procedures

used in the research study.

After getting this information, the participants must

provide consent for their participation.

Participants must be informed about their right to

Confidentiality and their right to withdrawal without
penalty.
 Debriefing

Post-administration debriefing should:

- Restate purpose of the research.
- Explain how the results will be used (usually.
emphasize that the interest is in the group
findings).
- Reiterate that findings will be treated
confidentially.
- Answer all of the respondents questions fully.
- Thank the participant!
 Participant Feedback

In clinical research, or research with interpretive

instruments, there may be the need to provide more in-
depth feedback about individuals responses (e.g.,
Research on Emotional Intelligence).

In such cases, first and foremost, it is critical that this

kind of detailed feedback be given by a qualified
individual.
Parties are involved in Professional Test Use:

(1) Testing professionals: the test developer and

publisher

(2) Testing professionals: the individuals who

administer the testing procedure

(3) The user: the organization or practice that will

eventually use the information to make certain
decisions

(4) The test taker

DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS

Define what each test measures and what the test should be used
for.

Describe the population(s) for which the test is appropriate.

Accurately represent the characteristics, usefulness, and limitations

of
tests for their intended purposes.

Describe the process of test development.

Provide evidence that the test meets its intended purpose(s).

Provide either representative samples or complete copies of test

questions, directions, answer sheets, manuals, and score reports to
qualified users.
DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont.)

Indicate the nature of the evidence obtained concerning the

appropriateness of each test for groups of different racial, ethnic, or
linguistic backgrounds who are likely to be tested.

Describe the population(s) represented by any norms or comparison

group(s), the dates the data were gathered, and the process used to select
the samples of test takers.

When feasible, make appropriately modified forms of tests or

administration procedures available for test takers with handicapping
conditions. Warn test users of potential problems in using standard
norms with modified tests or administration procedures that result in
non-comparable scores.
DEVELOPING/SELECTING APPROPRIATE TESTS (Cont.)

When a test is optional, provide test takers or their parents/guardians

with information to help them judge whether the test should be taken, or
if an available alternative to the test should be used.

Provide test takers the information they need to be familiar with the
coverage of the test, the types of question formats, the directions, and
appropriate test-taking strategies. Strive to make such information
equally available to all test takers.

Provide test takers or their parents/guardians with information about

rights test takers may have to obtain copies of tests and completed
answer sheets, retake tests, have tests rescored, or cancel scores.

Tell test takers or their parents/guardians how long scores will be kept
on file and indicate to whom and under what circumstances test scores
will or will not be released.
 Responsibility of The Tester
1. Have competence in test administration, interpretation and
feedback.

2. Have an understanding of basic psychometrics and scoring

procedures and be competent in interpretation, and apply
scientific knowledge and professional judgment to the results.

3. Take responsibility for the selection, administration, and

scoring, the analysis, interpretation and communication of test
results.

4. Be familiar with the context of use: the situation, purpose,

setting in which a test is used.
 Responsibility of The Tester (cont.)

5. Have knowledge of legal and ethical issues related to test

use

6 . Awareness of ethnic or cultural variables that could

influence the results:

7. Have the ability to determine language proficiency

8. Have knowledge of important racial, ethnic, or cultural

variables relevant for individuals or groups to whom tests are
administered.
 Issues to Address with the Testee

1. Informed consent - Assuring confidentiality, freedom

to withdraw, purpose of assessment, What kinds of
attributes are being measured?
2. Who is the client?Individual, Group, Employer
3. What happens with results, who has access to it
4. Where will the data be stored, how, and for how long
5. Time frame in which results are to be considered valid
6. Who will be the payer, and how much
7. Where will the assessment take place
8. Are the facilities appropriate, conducive for testing
9. Will there be follow-up assessments or feedback
 Factors Not Under the Testers Control

Some factors are not under the control of the

administrator :

1. How fatigued a test taker is.

2. Motivation level of the test taker.
3. Physical Discomfort
4. Test Anxiety
 Ethnic and Cultural Variables
Knowledge of attitudes of various racial, ethnic, or
cultural groups toward testing.

Ability to determine language proficiency.

Ability to determine the potential effects of

different test settings on different racial, ethnic, or
cultural groups.

Knowledge of specific biases that have been

demonstrated for particular tests for individuals or
groups of individuals from particular racial, ethnic,
or cultural minority groups.
 Test Fairness
People with different values often disagree over the fairness
of some testing practices.

Factors that affect testing fairness: 1. Obstacles

that prevent people from performing well 2. Test may
provide unfair advantage to some people 3. Some tests are
not valid and used in wrong situations 4. Some tests are
used for purposes that are inherently objectionable
 Test Use & Test Fairness
A test is most likely to be seen as unfair when: 1. It
is the sole basis for the decision. 2. The
consequences of doing poorly on the test is harsh

Ways to reduce concerns over test unfairness: 1.

Multiple assessment procedures 2. Use more
intensive screening procedures for those likely to be
treated unfairly by a given test.
 Types of Decisions
Two distinctions are very useful for classifying
decisions:
1. Individual or
Institutional
2. Comparative or Absolute
 Ethics References
Websites www.apa.org and www.cpa.ca
APA
American Psychological Associations Code of Ethics for Psychologists

The Ethical Practice of Psychology in Organizations

CPA
The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists

Companion Manual

Guidelines for Non-discriminatory Practice

Guidelines for Educational and Psychological Testing

Practice Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Service

 Ethics References (cont.)
Websites for publications / reports
Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers: Guidelines and Expectations
(www.apa.org/science/ttrr.html)
Responsibilities in Providing Psychological Test Feedback to Clients
(http://kspope.com/sci/feedback1.shtml)
The Real World: It is Better to Receive than to Give--Practical Tips for
Giving and Receiving Performance Feedback
(www.siop.org/tip/TipOct00/12waclawski.htm)
Statement on the Disclosure of Test Data
(www.apa.org/science/disclosu.html)
Test Security (American Psychologist, Dec. 1999, Vol.54, No.12, p1078)

Statement on the Use of Secure Psychological Tests in the Education of

Graduate and Undergraduate Psychology Students