CSC 211

Data Structures

Lecture 1

Dr. Iftikhar Azim Niaz

[email protected]

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 Dr. Iftikhar Azim Niaz
B.Sc (Maritime Studies) 1988
Pakistan Marine Academy,
Presidents Gold Medalist
Karachi University
M.Sc (Computer Science) 1994
Quaid-i-Azam University
MBA (Marketing) 1999
Allama Iqbal Open University
Ph.D (Software Engineering) 2005
University of Tsukuba, Japan
PGD (Professional Ethics and Teaching
Methodology) 2010
Riphah International University
2
 Dr. Iftikhar Azim Niaz
Deck Officer Feb 1989 Feb 1991
Atlas Shipmanagement Limited, Hong Kong
System Analyst Mar 1994 Mar 1995
Deutsche Telepost Consultants, Islamabad
Deputy Manager Apr 1995 Aug 1995
National Institute of Electronics
Lecturer Sep 1995 Jan 2007
Quaid-i-Azam University
Head of Department Jan 2007 Feb 2012
Riphah International University
Assistant Professor Feb 2012 to Date
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology
Islamabad Campus
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Why?
Why are you
studying Data
Structure and
Computer
Science ?

4
 Are these your Motivations?
Motivations is a feeling of enthusiasm,
interest, or commitment that makes
somebody want to do something, or
something that causes such a feeling
Encarta Dictionary
Because many people take it
Just a random choice, no particular reasons
A required course
I failed CSC211 before;
Want to be taught by a tough instructor
More
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I believe your REAL motivation is ...

I take it because I
am interested

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 Course Details
Course Code: CSC 211

Course Title: Data Structures

Credit Hours: 3+1

Course Prerequisites CSC141
Course Objectives:
The course is designed to teach students
structures and schemes, which allow them
to write programs to efficiently manipulate,
store, and retrieve data.
7
 Course Description
In recent years the subject of computer
programming has been recognized as a discipline
whose mastery is fundamental and crucial to the
success of many engineering projects and which
is amenable to scientific treatment and
presentation.
It has advanced from a craft to an academic
discipline
it is abundantly clear that a systematic and
scientific approach to program construction
primarily has a bearing in the case of large,
complex programs which involve complicated sets
of data.
Hence, a methodology of programming is also
bound to include all aspects of data structuring.
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 Course Objectives
To extend and deepen the student's knowledge
and understanding of algorithms and data
structures and the associated design and
analysis techniques
To examine previously studied algorithms and
data structures more rigorously and introduce
the student to "new" algorithms and data
structures.
It focuses the student's attention on the design
of program structures that are correct, efficient
in both time and space utilization, and defined
in terms of appropriate abstractions.
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 Course Goals
Upon completion of this course, a successful
student will be able to:
Describe the strengths and limitations of linear data
structures, trees, graphs, and hash tables
Select appropriate data structures for a specied
problem
Compare and contrast the basic data structures used in
Computer Science: lists, stacks, queues, trees and
graphs
Describe classic sorting techniques
Recognize when and how to use the following data
structures: arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues and binary
trees.
Identify and implement the basic operations for
manipulating each type of data structure

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 Course Goals
Upon completion of this course, a successful
student will be able to:
Perform sequential searching, binary searching and hashing
algorithms.
Apply various sorting algorithms including bubble, insertion,
selection and quick sort.
Understand recursion and be able to give examples of its use
Use dynamic data structures
Know the standard Abstract Data Types, and their
implementations
Students will be introduced to (and will have a basic
understanding of) issues and techniques for the assessment
of the correctness and efficiency of programs.

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 Course Outline - I
Introduction to data structures
Linear and non-linear data structures
Arrays and pointers
List data structure
Singly linked list
Doubly linked list
Analysis of List data structures
Circular linked list
Stack; Implementation of stack using arrays
and linked list
Applications of a stack
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 Course Outline - II
Infix to postfix conversion
Evaluation of postfix expressions
Queues; Implementation of queues using
arrays and linked list
Circular Queues; Priority Queues;
Trees; Tree traversals; Binary search trees and
implementation
Heaps and Heap sort;
Graphs; Minimum spanning trees;
Hashing
Files
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 Recommended Books
Textbooks:
R. Kruse, C.L. Tondo, B. Leung Data Structures &
Program Design in C, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education
Inc. India , 2007
Mark A. Weiss, Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis
in C, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education Inc. India, 1997 .

Reference Books:
Debasis Samanta, Classic Data Structures, 2nd Edition,
Prentice Hall India, 2009
ISRD Group, Data Structures Using C, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, New Delhi, India, 2006.

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Recommended Text Books

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Recommended Text Book

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Marks Distribution of Course
Assignments . 15%

Quizzes .... 10%

Sessionals .... 25%

Final . 50%

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A Nice Quote

Want to get something in life

Always think positive

You will definitely get the thing you want

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A nice saying
I keep 6 honest serving men.
They taught me all I knew.
Their names are:
WHAT and WHY and WHEN and HOW and WHERE
and WHO.
(R. Kipling)

And believe me,

on the road of learning,
these are your best companions.

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 Five Tips to Success
Work Hard

Try More
exercises and
more practice

Do the Labs and

assignments by
yourself

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 Five Tips

Be patient with the

Machine

If you really need

that, do it quietly

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Is the same situation is with you?

yes
No

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 Boss assigns task

To perform certain task?

How u will do?

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 Your Question:
Um? Tell me what to code.

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 So your answer:
I can develop a new algorithm for you.

Great thinkers
will always be needed.

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 Study:
Many experienced programmers were asked to
code up binary search.

80% got it wrong

Good thing is was not for a
nuclear power plant.

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What did they lack?

Fundamental understanding of the

algorithmic design techniques.

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 Programming is Problem Solving
Programming is a process of problem solving
Problem solving techniques
Analyze the problem
Outline the problem requirements
Specify what the solution should do
Design steps, called an algorithm, to solve the
problem (the general solution)
Verify that your solution really solves the problem
Algorithm a step-by-step problem-solving
process in which a solution is arrived at in a
finite amount of time
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 Computer Programming
Nicklaus Wirth
Program = Algorithm + Data Structure
Computer programming involves writing software
that allows a machine to perform various tasks
which, by hand, would be tedious or so time
consuming as to be essentially impossible to do.
Machines work incredibly quickly, never get tired,
and are excellent at following orders; however,
they will only perform as well as the instructions
presented to them.
Set of instructions that tell the computer what to do
and how to do?
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Introduction to Problem Solving
Programming is a problem solving activity.
When you write a program, you are actually
writing an instruction for the computer to solve
something for you.
Problem solving is the process of transforming
the description of a problem into a solution by
using our knowledge of the problem domain
and by relying on our ability to select and use
appropriate problem-solving strategies,
techniques and tools.

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 Case Study: Yummy Cupcake
Problem: You are required to calculate the
amount to be paid by a customer buying
cupcakes.

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Software Development Method (SDM)

For programmer, we solve problems

using Software Development Method
(SDM), which is as follows:
1. Specify the problem requirements.
2. Analyze the problem.
3. Design the algorithm to solve the problem.
4. Implement the algorithm.
5. Test and verify the completed program.
6. Documentation

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1. Requirement Specification
Specifying the problem requirements
requires you to state the problem clearly
and to gain the understanding of what to
be solved and what would be the solution.
When specifying problem requirement, we
ask ourselves the following questions:
What the problem is.
What the solution should provide.
What is needed to solve it.
If there are constraints and special conditions.

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Yummy Cupcake
Problem: You are required to calculate the amount to be
paid by a customer buying cupcakes.
What the problem is.

What the solution should provide.

What is needed to solve it.

If there are constraints and special conditions.

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Problem Analysis
Analyzing the problem require us to
identify the following:
Input(s) to the problem, their form and the input
media to be used
Output(s) expected from the problem, their
form and the output media to be used
Special constraints or conditions (if any)
Any formulas or equations to be used

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Yummy Cupcake
Input?
Quantity of the cupcake purchased (integer)

Price per cupcake (RM, float)

Output?
Total amount to be paid by the customer (RM, float)

Constraint/condition?
Quantity purchased must be more than zero

Price per cupcake must be more than zero (it is not free)

We assume that the price given is the standard price to all

cupcakes

Formula/equation?
Amount to pay = quantity of cupcake x price per cupcake

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Designing algorithm
Designing algorithm to solve the problem
requires you to develop a list of steps,
arranged in a specific logical order which,
when executed, produces the solution for a
problem.
Using top-down design (also called divide and
conquer):
You first list down the major tasks
For each major task, you further divide it into sub-
tasks (refinement step)
When you write algorithm, write it from the
computers point of view. 37
Designing Algorithm cont..
An algorithm must satisfy these requirements:
It may have an input(s)
It must have an output(s)
It should not be ambiguous (there should not be
different interpretations to it. Every step in algorithm
must be clear as what it is supposed to do)
It must be general (it can be used for different
inputs)
It must be correct and it must solve the problem for
which it is designed
It must execute and terminate in a finite amount of
time
It must be efficient enough so that it can solve the
intended problem using the resource currently
available on the computer
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 Yummy Cupcake
Major Task:
1. Read the quantity of cupcake purchased
2. Read the price per cupcake
3. Calculate total amount to pay
4. Display the total amount to pay
However, looking at the above algorithm, we can still further refine
step 3, by introducing the formula to calculate the amount to pay.
After refinement:
1. Read the quantity of cupcake purchased
2. Read the price per cupcake
3. Total amount to pay = quantity of cupcake x price per cupcake
4. Display the total amount to pay

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Remember, the order of the steps in
algorithm is very important. Consider the
following, will the result be the same?

1. Display the total amount to pay

2. Get the quantity of cupcake purchased
3. Total amount to pay = quantity of
cupcake x price per cupcake
4. Get the price per cupcake
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Control Structure
An algorithm can be represented using
Pseudocode or Flowchart.
In 1966, two researchers, C. Bohn and G.
Jacopini, demonstrated that any algorithm
can be described using only 3 control
structures: sequence, selection and
repetition.

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 Control Structure
Sequence: A series of steps or statements that are
executed in the order they are written in an
algorithm.
Selection: Defines two courses of action depending
on the outcome of a condition. A condition is an
expression that is, when computed, evaluated to
either true or false.
Repetition: Specifies a block of one or more
statements that are repeatedly executed until a
condition is satisfied.

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What is an Algorithm?

There are two parts to a computer

program.
There is the process or sequence of steps
which are necessary to complete the given
task and
the translation of this process into a
language which the computer can
understand.

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 Algorithm (Definition)
An algorithm refers to a step-by-step method
for performing some action.
A precisely defined sequence of (computational
steps) that transform a given input into a
desired output.
An algorithm tells us how to perform a task.
The logical steps to solve a problem.
Some examples of algorithms in everyday life
are food preparation, directions for assembling
equipment or instructions for filling out income
tax forms.
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 Criteria for Algorithm
Input: Zero or more quantities are externally
supplied
Output: At least one desired result is produced
Definiteness: Each instruction must be clear
and unambiguous
Finiteness: Algorithm terminates after a finite
number of steps
Effectiveness: Each instruction must be
feasible and very basic

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From Algorithms to Programs

Problem Algorithm: A sequence

of instructions describing
how to do a task

Computer Program
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Algorithm Representation
Algorithm

Pseudocode Flow Chart

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 What is Pseudocode?
Traditionally, flowcharts were used to represent
the steps in an algorithm diagrammatically. These
were bulky, difficult to draw and often led to poor
program structure.
Pseudocode is the method of writing down an
algorithm.
Pseudocode is easy to read and write. It
represents the statements of an algorithm in
English like language.
Pseudocode is really structured English. It is
English which has been formalised and
abbreviated to look like very high level computer
languages.
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Pseudocodes
A pseudocode is a semiformal, English-
like language with limited vocabulary
that can be used to design and describe
algorithms.

Criteria of a good pseudocode:

Easy to understand, precise and clear
Gives the correct solution in all cases
Eventually ends

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Example of Pseudocode
1. Open freezer door
2. Take out Meal
3. Close freezer door
4. Open microwave door
5. Put Meal on carousel
6. Shut microwave door
7. Set microwave on high for 5 minutes
8. Start microwave
9. Wait 5 minutes
10. Open microwave door
11. Remove Meal
12. Close microwave door
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Example of Algorithm
procedure Do_Thursday procedure Do_Week
{ {
Wake_up ; Do_Monday ;
Take_A_Shower ;
Do_Tuesday ;
Eat_Breakfast ;
Drive_To_university ; Do_Thursday ;
Attend_ALGO_Lecture ; ...etc...etc...etc...
...etc...etc...etc... }
Drive_From_university ;
...etc...etc...etc...
}

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Pseudocode
Pseudocode = English + Code

relaxed syntax that extended version of the

is easy to read basic control structures
(sequential, conditional,
iterative)

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 Pseudocode Rules
There is currently no standard pseudocode.
There are however certain conventions:
Statements are written in simple English;
Each instruction is written on a separate line;
Logic-showing Keywords are written in UPPER
CASE
(e.g. IF , THEN, FOR, WHILE )
Each set of instructions is written from top to
bottom with only one entry and one exit;
Groups of statements may be formed into
modules, and that group given a name.
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 Pseudocode
The following conventions are usually used.
The symbol is used to indicate that the
reminder of a line should be treated as a
comment. If more than one statement appears
on a single line, a semicolon will be used to
separate them.
ASSIGNMENT STATEMENTS have the form
x e, which assigns the value of expression e
to variable x. Multiple assignments can be
performed in one statement; for example,
x y e assigns the value of e to variables
x and y.
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 Pseudocode
Another way do this as follows:
x := e
where x is a variable and e is an expression.
When an assignment statement is executed,
the expression e is evaluated (using the current
values of all variables in the expression), and
then its value is placed in the memory location
corresponding to x (replacing any previous contents
of this location) .

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 Transposing Two Values - Example
Find an algorithm that takes two values x and y
as inputs. The input values are, then,
interchanged to obtain the output.
Method: If we try
x := y
y :=x
We would not obtain the desired output. Step 1
correctly changed x but the original value of x
was lost. Step 2 has no effect on the value of y.
To obtain the desired results, we must save the
original value of x. 56
 Transposing Two Values - Example
To obtain the desired results, we must save
the original value of x. This is done by
assigning the value of x to a new variable
called Save.
1. Input x, y [Input the values]
2. Save := x [Storing the original x]
3. x := y [Part of the output]
4. y := Save [The original x value]
5. Output x, y [Values Transposed]
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 Flowcharts
Flowcharts is a graph used to depict or
show a step by step solution using symbols
which represent a task.
The symbols used consist of geometrical
shapes that are connected by flow lines.
It is an alternative to pseudocoding;
whereas a pseudocode description is
verbal, a flowchart is graphical in nature.

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Flowchart Symbols
Terminal symbol - indicates the beginning and
end points of an algorithm.
Process symbol - shows an instruction other than
input, output or selection.
Input-output symbol - shows an input or an
output operation.

Disk storage I/O symbol - indicates input

from or output to disk storage.
Printer output symbol - shows hardcopy printer
output.

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Flowchart Symbols cont
Selection symbol - shows a selection
process for two-way selection.
Off-page connector provides continuation of
a logical path on another page.

On-page connector - provides continuation

of logical path at another point in the same
page.

Flow lines - indicate the logical sequence of

execution steps in the algorithm.

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The Sequence control structure
A series of steps or statements that are executed in the
order they are written in an algorithm.
The beginning and end of a block of statements can be
optionally marked with the keywords begin and end.
begin
begin
statement 1. statement 1
statement 2.
statement 2



statement n. statement n
end
end

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The Sequence control structure
Problem: calculate a persons age

Begin begin

read birth year

age = current year birth year read birth year

display age
End Age = current year
birth year

Display age

end

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The Selection control structure
Defines two courses of action depending on the
outcome of a condition. A condition is an expression
that is, when computed, evaluated to either true or
false.
The keyword used are if and else.
No Yes
Format: Condition?

if (condition)
then-part else- then-
else statement(s) statement(s)
else-part
end_if

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 The Selection control structure
Begin
read age
if (age is greater than 55) Begin

print Pencen
else Read age

print Kerja lagi

end_if YES NO
age > 55?
End
Begin
read age print Pencen print Kerja lagi
if (age > 55)
print Pencen
else
print Kerja lagi End

end_if
End

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Pseudocodes: The Selection control structure
Sometimes in certain situation, we may omit the else-part.
if (number is odd number)
print This is an odd number Example 1
end_if

Nested selection structure: basic selection structure that

contains other if/else structure in its then-part or else-part.
if (number is equal to 1)
print One
else if (number is equal to 2)
print Two
else if (number is equal to 3) Example 2
print Three
else
print Other
end_if

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Exercise
Draw the flowchart diagram for
Example 1 and Example 2

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The Repetition control structure
Specifies a block of one or more
statements that are repeatedly executed
until a condition is satisfied.
The keyword used is while.
Format:

yes Loop
while (condition) Condition?
Statement(s)
loop-body
no
end_while

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 Problem: Write a program that reads and displays
the age of 10 people (one after another).

For this problem, we need a way to count how many people

whose age have been processed (read and displayed).
Therefore, we introduce a concept of counter, a variable
used to count the number of people whose age have been
processed by the program.

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Begin Counter initialisation
number of users giving his age = 1
while (number of users giving his age <= 10)
read the age from the user.
print the user age. Loop condition
number of user giving his age + 1
end_while
Updating counter
End

Begin
users = 1
while (users <= 10)
read age
print age.
users = users + 1
end_while
End

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 Begin

users = 1

NO
End users <= 10?

YES

read age

print age

users =users + 1

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Subsequently..
Begin You can start the
counter with ZERO
number of users giving his age = 0
while (number of users giving his age < 10)
read the age from the user.
print the user age.
number of user giving his age + 1 The loop condition
must less than the
end_while value it requires to
End stop

Begin
users = 0
while (users < 10)
read age
print age. Be
users = users + 1 consistent
end_while
End

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Little extra
Now let us put together everything that you
have learnt so far.
Problem:
Write a program that will calculate and print the
age of 10 persons, given their birth year. If the
age of the person is above 55, then the
program will print Pencen, otherwise, the
program will print Kerja lagi.

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Begin
users = 1
while (users <= 10) Example 3
begin
Read birth year
age = current year birth year
print age
if age > 55 Note that in this
print Pencen example, we are
using all the three
else control structures:
print Kerja lagi sequence, selection
end_if and repetition
users = users + 1
end
end_while
End

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Exercise
Draw the flowchart diagram for
Example 3

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Implementation
The process of implementing an algorithm by
writing a computer program using a programming
language (for example, using C language)
The output of the program must be the solution
of the intended problem
The program must not do anything that it is not
supposed to do
(Think of those many viruses, buffer overflows, trojan
horses, etc. that we experience almost daily. All these
result from programs doing more than they were
intended to do)

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Testing and Verification
Program testing is the process of
executing a program to demonstrate its
correctness
Program verification is the process of
ensuring that a program meets user-
requirement
After the program is compiled, we must
execute the program and test/verify it with
different inputs before the program can be
released to the public or other users (or to
the instructor of this class) 76
Documentation
Writing description that explain what the
program does.
Can be done in 2 ways:
Writing comments between the line of codes
Creating a separate text file to explain the
program
Important not only for other people to use or
modify your program, but also for you to
understand your own program after a long time
(believe me, you will forget the details of your
own program after some time ...)

77
Documentation cont
Documentation is so important because:
You may return to this program in future to use the
whole of or a part of it again
Other programmer or end user will need some
information about your program for reference or
maintenance
You may someday have to modify the program, or may
discover some errors or weaknesses in your program

Although documentation is listed as the last

stage of software development method, it is
actually an ongoing process which should be
done from the very beginning of the software
development process.

78
Exercise time!!!

79
Volume calculation
Write a pseudocode and a flowchart for a
C program that reads the value of height,
width and length of a box from the user
and prints its volume.

80
Calculating Electricity Bills
The unit for electricity usage is kWh. For
domestic usage, the monthly rate is 21.8
cents/unit for the first 200 unit, 25.8 cents/unit
for the next 800 units and 27.8 cents/unit for
each additional units. Given the amount of
electricity units (in kWh) used by a customer,
calculate the amount of money needs to be
paid by the customer to TNB. A bill statement
needs to be printed out.
Write a pseudocode or a flow chart to solve
the above problem.
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Sum of 1 to 10
Write a pseudocode or flowchart for a
program that would compute and print the
sum of all integers between 1 and 10.

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Summary
Course Description, Goals and Contents
Introduced the concept of problem solving
: a process of transforming the description
of a problem into a solution.
A commonly used method SDM which
consists of 6 steps
3 basic control structures : sequence,
selection and repetition structures
Pseudocode and Flow chart
83