Dave Shattuck

University of Houston

University of Houston ECE 2300

Circuit Analysis

Lecture Set #4
Meters and Measurements

Dr. Dave Shattuck

Associate Professor, ECE Dept.

[email protected]
713 743-4422
W326-D3
Part 7 Meters
 Dave Shattuck

Overview of this Part

University of Houston

University of Houston

Meters

In this part, we will cover the following

topics:
Voltmeters
Ammeters
Ohmmeters
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Textbook Coverage
This material is in your textbook in the following
sections:
Electric Circuits 7th Ed. by Nilsson and Riedel:
Sections 3.5 & 3.6
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

Meters
University of Houston

Making Measurements
The subject of this part is meters. We will
consider devices to measure voltage, current, and
resistance. We have two primary goals in this study:
1. Learning how to
connect and use these
devices.
2. Understanding the
limitations of the
measurements.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeters
Fundamental Concepts
A voltmeter is a device that measures voltage. There are
a few things we should know about voltmeters:
1. Voltmeters must be placed in parallel with the voltage
they are to measure. Generally, this means that the two
terminals, or probes, of the voltmeter are connected or
touched to the two points between which the voltage is to be
measured.
2. Voltmeters can be modeled as resistances. That is to
say, from the standpoint of circuit analysis, a voltmeter
behaves the same way as a resistor. The value of this
resistance may, or may not, be very important.
3. The addition of a voltmeter to a circuit adds a resistance
to the circuit, and thus can change the circuit behavior. This
change may, or may not, be significant.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeters
Fundamental Concept #1
Voltmeters must be placed in parallel with the
voltage they are to measure. Generally, this means
that the two terminals, or probes, of the voltmeter
are connected or touched to the two points between
which the voltage is to be measured.
We usually say that we dont
have to break any connections to
connect a voltmeter to a circuit.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeters
Fundamental Concept #2
Voltmeters can be modeled as resistances. That is to say, from the
standpoint of circuit analysis, a voltmeter behaves in the same way as a
resistor. The value of this resistance may, or may not, be very important.
Generally, we will know the resistance of the voltmeter. For most
digital voltmeters, this value is 1[MW] or higher, and constant for each
range of measurement. For most analog voltmeters, this value is lower,
and depends on the voltage range being measured. The larger the
resistance, the better, since this will cause a smaller change in the circuit
it is connected to.
For analog voltmeters, the sensitivity of the
meter is the resistance of the voltmeter per [Volt]
on the full-scale range being used. A meter with
a sensitivity of 20[kW/V], will have a resistance
of 40[kW] if used on a 2[V] scale.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeters
Fundamental Concept #3
The addition of a voltmeter to a circuit adds a
resistance to the circuit, and thus can change the
circuit behavior. This change may, or may not, be
significant.
Of course, we would like to know if it is going
to be significant.
There are ways to determine whether it will be
significant, such as by comparing the resistance to
the Thevenin resistance of the circuit being
measured. However, we have not yet covered
Thevenins Theorem. Therefore, for now, we will
solve the circuit, with and without the resistance of
the meter included, and look at the difference.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeter Errors
Two kinds of errors are possible with voltmeter measurements.
1. One error is that the meter does not measure the voltage across it
accurately. This is a function of how the meter is made, and perhaps the
users reading of the scale.
2. The other error is that from the addition of a resistance to the circuit.
This added resistance is the resistance of the meter. This can change
the circuit behavior.
In a circuits course, the primary concern is with the second kind of
error, since it relates to circuit concepts. Generally, we assume for
circuits problems that the first type of error is zero.
That is, we will assume that the
voltmeter accurately measures the
voltage across it; the error occurs
from the change in the circuit caused
by the resistance added to the circuit
by the voltmeter. The next slide
shows an example of what we mean
by this.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeter Error Example

Here is an example on
voltmeter errors. We will assume
that the voltmeter accurately
measures the voltage across it;
the error occurs from the change R1=
in the circuit caused by the 83[kW]
resistance added to the circuit by A
the voltmeter. +
Lets add a voltmeter with a
resistance of 50[kW] to terminals A vX
+
and B in the circuit shown here. vS= R2=
The goal would be to measure the 4[V] 33[kW]
-
voltage across R2, labeled here as
vX. We will calculate the voltage it
is intended to measure, and then -
the voltage it actually measures. B
The difference between these
values is the error.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Voltmeter Error Example

Intended Measurement
The voltage without the R1=
voltmeter in place is the voltage 83[kW]
that we intend to measure. Stated A
another way, this is the voltage +
that would be measured with an
vX
ideal voltmeter, with a resistance +
that is infinite. Performing the vS= R2=
circuit analysis, we can say that 4[V] 33[kW]
-
without the voltmeter in place, the
voltage vX can be found from the -
Voltage Divider Rule,
B

R2 33[kW]
v X vS 4[V] 1.14[V].
R2 R1 33[kW] 83[kW]
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

Voltmeter Error Example

University of Houston

Actual Measurement
Next, we want to find the voltage vX again, this time with the voltmeter
in place. We have shown the voltmeter in its place to measure the
voltage across R2. Notice that the circuit does not have to be broken to
make the measurement. The next step is to convert this to a circuit that
we can solve; this means that we will replace the voltmeter with its
equivalent resistance.
R 1=
The standard 83[kW]
A
voltmeter schematic
+
symbol is shown here.
You will sometimes vX
see other symbols for +
vS= R 2=
the voltmeter, or 4[V] 33[kW] Voltmeter
variations on this - V
symbol.
-
B
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

Voltmeter Error Example

University of Houston

Actual Measurement
Next, we want to find the voltage vX again, this time with the voltmeter
in place. We have shown the voltmeter in its place to measure the
voltage across R2. Notice that the circuit does not have to be broken to
make the measurement. The next step is to convert this to a circuit that
we can solve; this means that we will replace the voltmeter with its
equivalent resistance.
R1=
A non-standard, 83[kW]
A
alternative voltmeter
schematic symbol is +
shown here. It has an vX
arrow at an angle to +
the connection wires, vS= R 2=
4[V] 33[kW] Voltmeter
implying a -
measurement. The
same symbol is often -
used with ammeters. B
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Voltmeter Error Example
University of Houston

Solving the Circuit

We have replaced the voltmeter with its equivalent resistance, RM,
and now we can solve the circuit. We may be tempted to use the voltage
divider rule using R1 and R2 again, but this will not work since R1 and R2
are no longer in series.
However, if we combine RM and R2 to an equivalent resistance in
parallel, this parallel combination will indeed be in series with R1. We can
do this, and still solve for vX, since vX can be identified outside the
equivalent parallel combination. This is shown by identifying vX in the
diagram at right, showing the voltage between two other points on the
same nodes.
R 1= R 1=
83[kW] 83[kW]
A A
+ +
vX vX
+ +
vS= R2= RM = vS= R2= RM =
4[V] 33[kW] 50[kW] 4[V] 33[kW] 50[kW]
- -

- -
B B
 Voltmeter Error Example
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

The Resulting Error

We have replaced the parallel combination of RM and R2
with an equivalent resistance, called RP. Now, RP is in series
with R1, and we can use the voltage divider rule to find vX.
We get
20[kW]
v X 4[V]
20[kW] 83[kW] R 1=

v X 0.78[V].
83[kW]
A

As we can see, in this case, the +

resistance of the voltmeter was too low vX
to make a very accurate measurement. +
Repeat this problem, with RM equal to vS= RP=
1[MW], and you will see that the 4[V] 20[kW]
-
measured voltage will then be 1.11[V],
which is much closer to the voltage we
-
intend to measure (1.14[V]) for this
circuit. B
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Extended Range and

Multirange Voltmeters
A voltmeter with a certain full scale
reading, can be made to measure even
larger voltages by placing a resistor in series
with it. The resistor and the voltmeter
combination can then be viewed as a new
voltmeter, with a larger range. The
measurement requires that the meter
resistance be known. This can be used to
calculate a multiplying factor for what the
voltmeter reads. Once done, this can be
repeated for other resistance values, to get a
voltmeter with multiple ranges. This allows
for simple and inexpensive analog multiple
range voltmeters.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston Extended Range Voltmeters

A voltmeter with a certain full scale reading, can be made to measure
even larger voltages by placing a resistor, RV, in series with it. The resistor
and the voltmeter can then be viewed as a new voltmeter, with a larger
range. This is shown here.
By using the Voltage
Divider Rule, we can
find the multiplying
factor to use to find the + +
reading for the new vT vT
extended range RV RV
voltmeter. We replace
the voltmeter with its
equivalent resistance, + +
RM, and then write the
expression relating vT Existing
vM V vM RM
and vM, Voltmeter

RM
vM vT . - - - -
RM RV Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Multiplying Factor for
University of Houston
Extended Range Voltmeters
A voltmeter with a certain full scale reading,
can be made to measure even larger voltages
by placing a resistor, RV, in series with it. The
We solve the VDR resistor and the voltmeter can then be viewed
as a new voltmeter, with a larger range.
equation we wrote on
the last slide for vT and
we get the multiplying + +
factor, which is the sum vT vT
of the resistances over RV RV
the meter resistance.

RM
vM vT + +

RM RV Existing
vM V vM RM
RM RV Voltmeter
vT vM .
RM - - - -
Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Extended Range Voltmeters -
University of Houston

- Notes
The new Extended Range Voltmeter can now be used to read larger voltages.
The reading of the Existing Voltmeter is multiplied by the sum of the resistances
divided by the meter resistance. Thus, the Extended Range Voltmeter can read
larger voltages, and in addition has a larger effective meter resistance, which is the
sum of the resistances.
By choosing different values of RV, we can also obtain a multirange voltmeter.
Inexpensive multirange analog voltmeters are built by using a switch, or a series of
connection points, to connect different series resistances to a single analog meter.

+ +
vT vT

RV RV
RM RV
vT vM .
RM + +

Existing
vM V vM RM
Voltmeter

- - - -
Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Go back to
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Extended Range Voltmeters Overview
slide.
Proportional Scales
University of Houston

The new Extended Range Voltmeter can now be used to read larger voltages. The
reading of the Existing Voltmeter is multiplied by the sum of the resistances divided by the
meter resistance. Thus, the Extended Range Voltmeter can read larger voltages, and in
addition has a larger effective meter resistance, which is the sum of the resistances.
By choosing different values of RV, we can also obtain a multirange voltmeter.
Inexpensive multirange analog voltmeters are built by using a switch, or a series of connection
points, to connect different series resistances to a single analog meter.

RM RV + +
vT vM . vT vT
RM RV RV

Since the scale on

an analog voltmeter
+ +
is linear, several
scales can be easily Existing
labeled on the same vM V vM RM
Voltmeter
meter, each
proportional to the
- - - -
other.
Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Go back to
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Extended Range Voltmeters Overview
slide.
Terminology
University of Houston

The new Extended Range Voltmeter is referred to with

some common terminology. The Existing Voltmeter is often an
analog meter called a dArsonval meter movement. The
voltage at full scale across the dArsonval meter movement is
called vdA,rated. The current at full scale through the dArsonval
meter movement is called idA,rated.
RM RV
vT vM . + +
RM vT vT

RV RV
The full-scale values are
used to characterize
+ +
meters. Remember that
all of the full-scale Existing
RM
vM V Voltmeter vM
characteristics occur at
the same time. - - - -
Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Go back to
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Extended Range Voltmeters Overview
slide.
Terminology
University of Houston

The new Extended Range Voltmeter is referred to with

some common terminology. The Existing Voltmeter is often an
analog meter called a dArsonval meter movement. The
voltage at full scale across the dArsonval meter movement is
called vdA,rated. The current at full scale through the dArsonval
meter movement is called idA,rated.
RM RV
vT vM .
RM + +
vT vT
The ratio of vdA,rated to idA,rated RV RV
will be the resistance of the
dArsonval meter movement. + +
Remember, the dArsonval
Existing
meter movement is simply a vM V Voltmeter vM RM

meter, and can be modeled

- - - -
with a resistance. Extended Range Voltmeter Extended Range Voltmeter
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeters
Fundamental Concepts

An ammeter is a device that measures current. There are

a few things we should know about ammeters:
1. Ammeters must be placed in series with the current they
are to measure. Generally, this means that the circuit is
broken, and then the two terminals, or probes, of the
ammeter are connected or touched to the two points where
the break was made.
2. Ammeters can be modeled as resistances. That is to say,
from the standpoint of circuit analysis, an ammeter behaves
the same way as a resistor. The value of this resistance
may, or may not, be very important.
3. The addition of an ammeter to a circuit adds a resistance
to the circuit, and thus can change the circuit behavior. This
change may, or may not, be significant.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeters
Fundamental Concept #1
Ammeters must be placed in series with the
current they are to measure. Generally, this means
that the circuit is broken, and then the two terminals,
or probes, of the ammeter are connected or touched
to the two points where the break was made.
We usually say that we
have to break a connection to
connect a ammeter to a circuit.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeters
Fundamental Concept #2
Ammeters can be modeled as resistances. That is to say,
from the standpoint of circuit analysis, an ammeter behaves
in the same way as a resistor. The value of this resistance
may, or may not, be very important.
Generally, we will know the resistance of the ammeter.
The smaller the resistance, the better, since this will cause a
smaller change in the circuit it is connected to.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeters
Fundamental Concept #3
The addition of an ammeter to a circuit adds a
resistance to the circuit, and thus can change the
circuit behavior. This change may, or may not, be
significant.
Of course, we would like to know if it is going
to be significant.
There are ways to determine whether it will be
significant, such as by comparing the resistance to
the Thevenin resistance of the circuit being
measured. However, we have not yet covered
Thevenins Theorem. Therefore, for now, we will
solve the circuit, with and without the resistance of
the meter included, and look at the difference.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
Ammeter Errors
Two kinds of errors are possible with ammeter measurements.
1. One error is that the meter does not measure the current through it
accurately. This is a function of how the meter is made, and perhaps the
users reading of the scale.
2. The other error is that from the addition of a resistance to the circuit.
This added resistance is the resistance of the meter. This can change
the circuit behavior.
In a circuits course, the primary concern is with the second kind of
error, since it relates to circuit concepts. Generally, we assume for
circuits problems that the first type of error is zero.
That is, we will assume that the
ammeter accurately measures the
current through it; the error occurs
from the change in the circuit caused
by the resistance added to the circuit
by the ammeter. The next slide
shows an example of what we mean
by this.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeter Error Example

Here is an example on
ammeter errors. We will assume
that the ammeter accurately
measures the current through it;
the error occurs from the change
in the circuit caused by the A B
resistance added to the circuit by
iX
the ammeter.
Lets add an ammeter with a
resistance of 50[W] to terminals A iS= R1= R2=
and B in the circuit shown here. 2[A] 150[W] 330[W]
The goal would be to measure the
current through R2, labeled here
as iX. We will calculate the current
it is intended to measure, and then
the current it actually measures.
The difference between these
values is the error.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeter Error Example

Intended Measurement
The current without the
ammeter in place is the current
that we intend to measure. Stated A B
another way, this is the current that iX
would be measured with an ideal
ammeter, with a resistance that is
zero. Performing the circuit iS= R1= R2=
analysis, we can say that without 2[A] 150[W] 330[W]
the ammeter in place, the current
iX can be found from the Current
Divider Rule,

R1 150[W]
iX iS 2[A] 0.63[A].
R2 R1 150[W] 330[W]
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeter Error Example

Actual Measurement
Next, we want to find the current iX again, this time with the ammeter
in place. We have shown the ammeter in its place to measure the current
through R2. Notice that the circuit had to be broken to make the
measurement. The next step is to convert this to a circuit that we can
solve; this means that we will replace the ammeter with its equivalent
resistance.
Ammeter
The standard
A B
ammeter schematic A
symbol is shown here.
You will sometimes
see other symbols for iX
the ammeter, or iS= R1= R 2=
variations on this 2[A] 150[W] 330[W]
symbol.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ammeter Error Example

Actual Measurement
Next, we want to find the current iX again, this time with the ammeter
in place. We have shown the ammeter in its place to measure the current
through R2. Notice that the circuit had to be broken to make the
measurement. The next step is to convert this to a circuit that we can
solve; this means that we will replace the ammeter with its equivalent
resistance.
Ammeter
A non-standard
alternative ammeter A B
schematic symbol is
shown here. It has an
arrow at an angle to iX
the connection wires, iS= R 1= R2=
implying a 2[A] 150[W] 330[W]
measurement. The
same symbol is often
used with voltmeters.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Ammeter Error Example
University of Houston

Solving the Circuit

We have replaced the ammeter with its equivalent resistance, RM,
and now we can solve the circuit. We may be tempted to use the current
divider rule using R1 and R2 again, but this will not work since R1 and R2
are no longer in parallel.
However, if we combine RM and R2 to an equivalent resistance in
series, this series combination will indeed be in parallel with R1. We can
do this, and still solve for iX, since iX can be identified outside the
equivalent series combination. This is shown by identifying iX in the
diagram at right, showing the current entering the same combination.

RM = RM =
50[W] 50[W]
A B A B
iX
iX

iS= R1= R2= iS= R1= R2=

2[A] 150[W] 330[W] 2[A] 150[W] 330[W]
 Ammeter Error Example
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

The Resulting Error

We have replaced the series combination of RM and R2
with an equivalent resistance, called RS. Now, RS is in
parallel with R1, and we can use the current divider rule to
find iX. We get
150[W]
iX 2[A]
150[W] 380[W]
iX
iX 0.57[A].
As we can see, in this case, the iS= R 1= RS=
resistance of the ammeter was too large 2[A] 150[W] 380[W]
to make a very accurate measurement.
Repeat this problem, with RM equal to
0.5[W], and you will see that the
measured current will then be 0.62[A],
which is much closer to the current we
intend to measure (0.63[A]) for this
circuit.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Extended Range and

Multirange Ammeters
An ammeter with a certain full scale
reading, can be made to measure even
larger currents by placing a resistor in
parallel with it. The resistor and the ammeter
combination can then be viewed as a new
ammeter, with a larger range. The
measurement requires that the meter
resistance be known. This can be used to
calculate a multiplying factor for what the
ammeter reads. Once done, this can be
repeated for other resistance values, to get
an ammeter with multiple ranges. This
allows for simple and inexpensive analog
multiple range ammeters.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston Extended Range Ammeters

An ammeter with a certain full scale reading, can be made to measure
even larger currents by placing a resistor, RA, in parallel with it. The resistor
and the ammeter can then be viewed as a new ammeter, with a larger
range. This is shown here.

iT iM

RA Existing
By using the Current Divider A Ammeter
Rule, we can find the
multiplying factor to use to find
the reading for the new
extended range ammeter. We Extended Range Ammeter
replace the ammeter with its
equivalent resistance, RM, and iT iM
then write the expression
relating iT and iM, RA RM

RA
iM iT .
RM RA Extended Range Ammeter
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Multiplying Factor for
University of Houston
Extended Range Ammeters
An ammeter with a certain full scale reading, can be made to measure
even larger currents by placing a resistor, RA, in parallel with it. The resistor
and the ammeter can then be viewed
as a new ammeter, with a larger range.

iT iM
We solve the CDR
equation we wrote on RA Existing
A Ammeter
the last slide for iT and
we get the multiplying
factor, which is the sum
of the resistances over Extended Range Ammeter
the parallel resistance.

RA iT iM
iM iT
RA RM RA RM

RM RA
iT iM .
RA Extended Range Ammeter
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston Extended Range Ammeters --
University of Houston

Notes
The new Extended Range Ammeter
can now be used to read larger currents.
The reading of the Existing Ammeter is
multiplied by the sum of the resistances
iT iM
divided by the parallel resistance. Thus, the
Extended Range Ammeter can read larger Existing
RA A
currents, and in addition has a smaller Ammeter
effective meter resistance, which is the
parallel combination of the resistances.
By choosing different values of RA, we
can also obtain a multirange ammeter. Extended Range Ammeter
Inexpensive multirange analog ammeters
are built by using a switch, or a series of
connection points, to connect different iT iM
parallel resistances to a single analog
meter.
RA RM
RM RA
iT iM .
RA
Extended Range Ammeter
 Extended Range Ammeters
Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston slide.
Proportional Scales
The new Extended Range Ammeter can now be used to read larger currents. The
reading of the Existing Ammeter is multiplied by the sum of the resistances divided by the
parallel resistance. Thus, the Extended Range Ammeter can read larger currents, and in
addition has a smaller effective meter resistance, which is the parallel combination of the
resistances.
By choosing different values of RA, we can
also obtain a multirange ammeter. Inexpensive iT iM
multirange analog ammeters are built by using a
switch, or a series of connection points, to connect Existing
different parallel resistances to a single meter. R A A Ammeter

RM RA
iT iM . Extended Range Ammeter

RA
iT iM
Since the scale on an analog ammeter
is linear, several scales can be easily RA RM
labeled on the same meter, each
proportional to the other.
Extended Range Ammeter
 Extended Range Ammeters
Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston slide.
Terminology
The new Extended Range
Ammeter is referred to with some
RM RA
common terminology. The Existing iT iM .
Ammeter is often an analog meter RA
called a dArsonval meter movement.
The voltage at full scale across the
dArsonval meter movement is called iT iM
Existing
vdA,rated. The current at full scale RA A Ammeter
through the dArsonval meter
movement is called idA,rated.
Extended Range Ammeter

The full-scale values are used to iT iM

characterize meters. Remember RA RM
that all of the full-scale
characteristics occur at the same
time. Extended Range Ammeter
 Extended Range Ammeters
Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston slide.
Terminology
The new Extended Range
Voltmeter is referred to with some
RM RA
common terminology. The Existing iT iM .
Voltmeter is often an analog meter RA
called a dArsonval meter movement.
The voltage at full scale across the
dArsonval meter movement is called iT iM
Existing
vdA,rated. The current at full scale RA A Ammeter
through the dArsonval meter
movement is called idA,rated.
Extended Range Ammeter

The ratio of vdA,rated to idA,rated will be the iT iM

resistance of the dArsonval meter RA RM
movement. Remember, the dArsonval
meter movement is simply a meter, and
can be modeled with a resistance. Extended Range Ammeter
 Definitions for Meters 1
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

This table is available on the course web page.

Term or Variable Definition in words

dArsonval meter A common version of an analog meter. The
movement deflection of the meter is proportional to the
current through it, and to the voltage across it. It
can be modeled as a resistance.
Rated value for Full scale value for a dArsonval meter
dArsonval meter movement
movement
idA rated Full scale current for a dArsonval meter
movement, which is typically used to produce an
ammeter or a voltmeter by adding resistors
vdA rated Full scale voltage for a dArsonval meter
movement, which is typically used to produce an
ammeter or a voltmeter by adding resistors
 Definitions for Meters 2
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

This table is available on the course web page.

Term or Variable Definition in words

imeter, fullscale or iFS Full scale current for an extended range meter
vmeter, fullscale or vFS Full scale voltage for an extended range meter
dArsonval based Extended range
v voltmeter built with a dArsonval
R .
d ' A RATED
i
d'A
voltmeter meter movement d ' A RATED

dArsonval based Extended range ammeter built with a dArsonval

ammeter meter movement
RdA The resistance of a dArsonval meter
movement. As with any meter, this resistance
can be found from the full scale voltage divided
by the full scale current. Thus,
vd ' A RATED
Rd ' A .
id ' A RATED
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ohmmeters
Fundamental Concepts

An ohmmeter is a device that measures

resistance. There are a few things we should know
about ohmmeters:
1. Ohmmeters must have a source in them.
2. An ohmmeter measures the ratio of the voltage at
its terminals, to the current through its terminals,
and reports the ratio as a resistance.
3. An analog ohmmeter is often characterized by its
half-scale reading.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ohmmeters
Fundamental Concept #1
Ohmmeters must have a source in
them.
The voltmeters and ammeters we
discussed earlier may or may not have
a source within them; they may use the
voltage or current that they are
measuring to power the measurement.
However, a resistor does not provide
power, and a source must be present
to provide this.
Thus, while an analog voltmeter or
ammeter may work without a battery, it
is not possible for an ohmmeter to
work without a battery or other source
of power.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ohmmeters
Fundamental Concept #2
An ohmmeter measures the ratio of the
voltage at its terminals, to the current through
its terminals, and reports the ratio as a
resistance.
This is a key idea about ohmmeters. We
could say that an ohmmeter assumes that
everything is a resistor. If we connect the
ohmmeter to something other than a resistor,
such as a battery, it will report the ratio of the
voltage to the current at its terminals, even
though this may be a meaningless number.

Electrical-Engineer Generals Warning: It is

important to remove a resistor from its circuit
before measuring it with an ohmmeter. If we do
not, the measurement we obtain may not have any
meaning.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Ohmmeters
Fundamental Concept #3
An analog ohmmeter is
often characterized by its
half-scale reading. Meter
An analog ohmmeter will
have a scale which has zero on
one end, and infinity on the other
end. This is true no matter what vB +
the range it is set to. To (Battery Unknown
voltage) Resistor RX
understand this, it is useful to -
look at the internal circuit of the
ohmmeter. A typical circuit for a
simple analog ohmmeter is
Adjustable
shown here. Resistor RO

Ohmmeter Circuit
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Simple Ohmmeter Circuit Notes

We may note several Meter

things about this circuit.
1. If the resistor RX is
infinity (an open circuit), the
current through the meter vB +
Unknown
(Battery
will be zero. The meter will voltage) Resistor RX
-
be at one end of its scale.
2. If the resistor RX is zero
(a short circuit), the resistor
RO is adjusted to make the Adjustable
meter read full scale. Resistor RO

Ohmmeter Circuit
 Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston slide.
Simple Ohmmeter Circuit
More Notes
Thus, the value of the
resistor RO is adjusted to
make the meter read full
scale when RX is zero. Meter
Thus, the full-scale current
must be equal to vB divided
by the series combinations
of the meter resistance and vB +
Unknown
RO. It follows that half the (Battery
Resistor RX
voltage) -
full-scale current will result
when RX equals this series
combination.
A potentially useful bit of information is Adjustable
this: the half-scale reading of an Resistor RO
analog ohmmeter is equal to the
internal resistance of the meter. Ohmmeter Circuit
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
What is the Point of
Considering Analog Meters?
This is a good question, considering how accurate,
inexpensive, and easy to use digital meters have
become.
The answer is two fold: First, there are still several
applications for analog meters, and it is important to
understand them. The benefits are made more important
since the meters themselves are relatively simple and
easy to understand.
Second, an understanding of these meter concepts allow
digital meters to be understood, from an applications
standpoint. For example, we can extend
the operating range of a digital voltmeter by
adding a series resistor, just as we did with
Go back to
analog voltmeters. Overview
slide.
 Part 8
The Wheatstone Bridge
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
Overview of this Part
The Wheatstone Bridge

In this part, we will cover the following

topics:
Null Measurement Techniques
Wheatstone Bridge Derivation
Wheatstone Bridge Measurements
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Textbook Coverage
This material is covered in your textbook in the
following section:
Electric Circuits 7th Ed. by Nilsson and Riedel:
Section 3.6
 Dave Shattuck
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The Wheatstone Bridge

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A Null-Measurement Technique
The subject of this part of Module 2 is the
Wheatstone Bridge, a null-measurement technique
for measuring resistance. There are also null-
measurement techniques for measurements of
things like voltage, but we will just consider this one
example to illustrate the principle. These techniques
have the following properties:
1. They use a standard meter,
such as an ammeter or voltmeter.
2. The measurement occurs when
the reading on this ammeter or
voltmeter is zero.
 Null-Measurement
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Techniques Note 1
Null-measurement techniques use a standard meter, such
as an ammeter or voltmeter. Typically, they use an analog
meter, such as the DArsonval meter movement, which is
described in many circuits textbooks. Such meters are
sometimes thought of as ammeters, since their response is
due to the magnetic field in a coil, caused by a current.
However, since these meters can be modeled as
resistances, which means that
the current through them is
proportional to the voltage
across them, the distinction
is not really important.
In this sense, all of these meters
are both voltmeters and ammeters.
 Null-Measurement
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Techniques Note 2
The null-measurement occurs when the reading on this
ammeter or voltmeter is zero. This is a huge practical benefit.
Making a meter which is precisely linear, with an accurate
scale, and negligible resistance, is a challenge. None of
these issue matter in a null measurement, since the purpose
of the meter to determine the presence or absence of current
or voltage. It does not need to be linear; it is only important to
detect the zero value. The resistance does not matter, since
there is no current through the meter at the point of
measurement.
The only concern is that the
meter be able to detect fairly small
currents, during the nulling step.
This makes the design much easier.
 Null-Measurement
Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

Techniques Note 3
We will consider the particular null-measurement technique known as
the Wheatstone Bridge. This is a very accurate resistance measurement
technique, which also has applications in measurement devices such as
strain gauges.
There are other null-measurement techniques. One such technique is
called the Potentiometric Voltage Measurement System. This is
discussed in the textbook Circuits, by A. Bruce Carlson, on pages 121 and
122. A diagram from the text is included here. While interesting, we will
concentrate on the Wheatstone Bridge in this module.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
The Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge is a resistance measuring
technique that uses a meter to detect when the voltage across
that meter is zero. The meter is placed across the middle of
two resistor pairs. The resistor pairs in the circuit here are R1
and R3, and R2 and RX. The meter is said to bridge the
midpoints of these two pairs of resistors, which is
where the name
comes from. R1 R2
A source (vS) is
Meter
used to power the +
entire combination. vS
See the diagram here. -

R3 RX
 Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
slide.
The Wheatstone Bridge Notes
University of Houston

The resistor RX is an unknown resistor, that is, the resistor whose

resistance is being measured. The other three resistors are known values.
The resistor R3 is a variable resistor, calibrated so that as it is varied its
value is known. The meter might be considered to be a voltmeter.
However, it should be noted that a meter is a resistor from a circuits
viewpoint, so that when the voltage is zero the current is also zero.

R1 R2

Meter
+
vS
-

R3 RX
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

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The Wheatstone Bridge

The Nulling Step
To make the measurement, the resistor R3 is a varied so
that the voltmeter reads zero. Thus, when R3 is the proper
value, then vM and iM are both zero.

R1 R2

Meter
+
vS + vM -

- iM

R3 RX
 Dave Shattuck

The Wheatstone Bridge

University of Houston

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Derivation Step 1
Using the fact that vM and iM are both zero, we can derive
the operating equation for the Wheatstone Bridge. Lets take
this derivation one step at a time.
First, since iM is zero, we can say that R1 and R3 are in
series, and R2 and RX are in series.

R1 R2

Meter
+
vS + vM -

- iM

R3 RX
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

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The Wheatstone Bridge

Derivation Step 2
Second, since R1 and R3 are in series, and R2 and RX are in
series, we can write expressions for v3 and vX using the
voltage divider rule,

R3
v3 vS , and
R3 R1
R1 R2

Meter
RX
v X vS . +
+ vM -
RX R2 vS
iM
- + +
v3 vX

R3 RX
- -
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston

The Wheatstone Bridge

Derivation Step 3
Third, since vM is zero, we can write KVL around the loop
and show that v3 is equal to vX. Thus, we can set the
expressions for these two voltages equal,

R1 R2
R3 RX
vS vS .
R3 R1 RX R2 Meter
+
vS + vM -

- + iM +
v3 vX

R3 RX
- -
 Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston slide.
The Wheatstone Bridge
Derivation Step 4
Fourth, we can divide through by vS. This is important,
since it means that the exact value of vS does not matter. For
example, the source could be a battery, and if the battery runs
down a little, it does not change the measurement. We get,

R3 RX
. R1 R2
R3 R1 RX R2
Meter
This can be solved vS
+
+ vM -

for RX , - + iM +
v3 vX
R2
RX R3 . R3 RX
R1 - -
 Dave Shattuck
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The Wheatstone Bridge

Equation
So, we have shown that when R3 is adjusted so that meter
reads zero, this results in the equation below. Since R1, R2,
and R3 are known, we now know RX.

R1 R2
R2
RX R3 Meter
R1 vS
+
+ vM -

- + iM +
v3 vX

R3 RX
- -
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
The Wheatstone Bridge
Measurements
Lets review the basics of the Wheatstone Bridge.
1. The resistors R1, R2, and R3 are known, and R3 is variable.
2. The resistor R3 is varied until the meter reads zero.
3. Because the meter reads zero, the current through it is zero, leaving
two series resistor pairs.
4. Because the meter reads zero, the voltage across it is zero, making
the voltage divider rule voltages equal.
5. Setting these voltages equal and solving yields the equation below.

R1 R2

R2
RX R3
Meter
+
vS + vM -
R1 - + iM +
v3 vX

R3 RX
- -
 Dave Shattuck Go back to
University of Houston Overview
University of Houston
The Wheatstone Bridge slide.

Operating Notes
Lets review the advantages of the Wheatstone Bridge.
1. The accuracy of the measurement is determined almost entirely by the
accuracy of the values of the resistors R1, R2, and R3. Typically, it is
relatively easy to have these resistances accurately known.
2. The meter reads zero during the measurement, so the linearity,
accuracy and resistance of the meter do not matter. The meter only needs
to detect the point at which the voltage across it is zero. At this point the
bridge is said to be balanced.
3. The source voltage term cancels, so if
vS changes, the accuracy of the
measurement is not seriously affected.
R1 R2
The voltage vS only needs to be large
enough to deflect the meter when the Meter
bridge is not balanced. + v
vS + M -

R2 + iM +
RX R3
-
v3 vX

R1 -
R3 RX
-
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
Whats So Special About
Null-Measurement Techniques?

Null-Measurement Techniques are a clever

way of using the strengths of meters,
particularly analog meters, while minimizing
their weaknesses. As such, they are a good
example of problem-solving approaches.
In addition, these techniques allow us to
exercise the concepts covered earlier in the
module, such as series resistors and the
voltage divider rule.

Go back to
Overview
slide.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

University of Houston
Example Problem #1
The extended-range ammeter shown in 7[W]
Figure 1 uses an internal ammeter with
a 5[mA] full-scale current, and three 10[W] 5[W]
a
resistors. The internal ammeter has a
full-scale voltage of 100[mV].
3[W]
This
c

problem Internal Ammeter

+ is taken 100[mV]
12[W] 5[mA]
-
50[mV]
from b
Quiz
d
#2, Fall Extended Range Ammeter
Figure 2
2002.
Figure 1
a) Find the full-scale current of the extended range ammeter.
b) The circuit shown in Figure 2 was connected to the extended-
range ammeter, connecting terminal a to terminal c, and terminal b to
terminal d. Find the reading of the extended-range ammeter for this
situation.
 Dave Shattuck
University of Houston

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Example Problem #2

This problem is
taken from Problem
3.44 in the Nilsson
and Riedel text.