Introduction to WLAN

Srirama Krishna MV
Course Content

 Chapter 1: Introduction to WLAN

 Chapter 2: WLAN Organisations
and Standards
 Chapter 3: WLAN Architecture
 Chapter 4: WLAN Infrastructure Devices
 Chapter 5: 802.11 MAC Layer
 Chapter 6: 802.11 Physical Layer
 Appendix: 802.11 Evolution
Chapter 1 – Introduction to WLAN

 History
 Why WLAN?
 Challenges
A Brief History of Spread Spectrum Networking

1940 Spread spectrum technology first used

1980 Limited applications using narrow band technology
1989 FCC assigns frequency for commercial use
(900MHz, 2.4GHz, 5GHz)
1990
 First 900MHz products shipped
 IEEE begins to work on wireless LAN standard

1994 First 2.4GHz products shipped

1997 IEEE 802.11 standard approved
1999
 IEEE 802.11a and 802.11b approved
 First 802.11b products shipped
Why Wireless LAN?
 Access Role
 Network Extension
 Building to Building Connectivity
 Last Mile ISP (WISP)
 Mobility (e.g. warehouse)
 SOHO
 Mobile Offices
 Hot Spots
Benefits of WLANs

Wireless LANs offer the following productivity, service, convenience, and cost advantages over traditional wired

networks:

•Mobility-Wireless LAN systems can provide LAN users with access to real-time information anywhere in their
organization. This mobility supports productivity and service opportunities not possible with wired networks.

•Installation Speed and Simplicity-Installing a wireless LAN system can be fast and easy and can
eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.

•Installation Flexibility-Wireless technology allows the network to go where wire cannot go.

•Reduced Cost-of-Ownership-While the initial investment required for wireless LAN hardware can be higher
than the cost of wired LAN hardware, overall installation expenses and life-cycle costs can be significantly lower.
Long-term cost benefits are greatest in dynamic environments requiring frequent moves, adds, and changes.

•Scalability-Wireless LAN systems can be configured in a variety of topologies to meet the needs of specific
applications and installations. Configurations are easily changed and range from peer-to-peer networks suitable for

a small number of users to full infrastructure networks of thousands of users that allows roaming over a broad

area.
Challenges
 Billing
– Business model
– Single bill from the home service provider
 Roaming
– Between IP networks
– Between 3G and Wi-Fi
 Indoor coverage for ISP
– Public transport (metro, airport, buses, train…)
– Access rights

Security issues
– Interference from competition

Unregulated frequencies
 Security concerns
Chapter 2 – WLAN Organizations and Standards

 IEEE
– 802.11 Family
 FCC & IC

Major Organisations
IEEE Roles and Responsibility
 The world's largest technical professional society
– Promoting the development and application of electro-technology
and allied sciences
 Fosters the development of standards that often become
national and international standards
 Publishes a number of journals
 Has many local chapters to promote research and development
 EM Spectrum and Frequency Allocation

Name   Symbol   Frequency   Wavelength   Applications  

directly audible when converted to
sound, communication with
Extremely low frequency ELF 3 to 30 Hz 10,000 km to 100,000 km submarines
directly audible when converted to
sound, AC power grids (50 hertz
Super low frequency SLF 30 to 300 Hz 1,000 km to 10,000 km and 60 hertz)
directly audible when converted to
Ultra low frequency ULF 300 to 3000 Hz 100 km to 1,000 km sound, communication with mines
directly audible when converted to
Very low frequency VLF 3 to 30 kHz 10 km to 100 km sound
international broadcasting,
Low frequency LF 30 to 300 kHz 1 km to 10 km navigational beacons, lowFER
navigational beacons, AM
broadcasting, maritime and aviation
Medium frequency MF 300 to 3000 kHz 10 m to 1 km communication
High frequency HF 3 to 30 MHz 10 m to 100 m shortwave, citizens' band radio
FM broadcasting, broadcast
Very high frequency VHF 30 to 300 MHz 1 m to 10 m television, aviation, GPR
broadcast television, mobile
telephones, wireless networking,
remote keyless entry for
automobiles, microwave ovens,
Ultra high frequency UHF 300 to 3000 MHz 10 cm to 100 cm GPR
wireless networking, satellite links,
microwave links, Satellite television,
Super high frequency SHF 3 to 30 GHz 1 cm to 10 cm door openers.
microwave data links, radio
astronomy, remote sensing,
advanced weapons systems,
Extremely high frequency EHF 30 to 300 GHz 1 mm to 10 mm advanced security scanning
Wireless LAN Technology Options
Manufacturers of wireless LANs have a range of technologies to
choose from when designing a wireless LAN solution. Each
technology comes with its own set of advantages and
limitations.

Spread Spectrum
Most wireless LAN systems use spread-spectrum technology, a wideband
radio frequency technique developed by the military for use in reliable,
secure, mission-critical communications systems. Spread-spectrum is
designed to trade off bandwidth efficiency for reliability, integrity, and
security. In other words, more bandwidth is consumed than in the case of
narrowband transmission, but the tradeoff produces a signal that is, in
effect, louder and thus easier to detect, provided that the receiver knows
the parameters of the spread-spectrum signal being broadcast. If a receiver
is not tuned to the right frequency, a spread-spectrum signal looks like
background noise. There are two types of spread spectrum radio:
frequency hopping and direct sequence.
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum Technology

Frequency-hopping spread-spectrum (FHSS) uses a

narrowband carrier that changes frequency in a pattern known
to both transmitter and receiver. Properly synchronized, the net
effect is to maintain a single logical channel. To an unintended
receiver, FHSS appears to be short-duration impulse noise.
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum Technology

Direct-sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) generates a

redundant bit pattern for each bit to be transmitted. This bit
pattern is called a chip (or chipping code). The longer the chip,
the greater the probability that the original data can be
recovered (and, of course, the more bandwidth required). Even
if one or more bits in the chip are damaged during
transmission, statistical techniques embedded in the radio can
recover the original data without the need for retransmission.
To an unintended receiver, DSSS appears as low-power
wideband noise and is rejected (ignored) by most narrowband
receivers.
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum Technology
Infrared Technology

Infrared (IR) systems use very high frequencies, just

below visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum, to
carry data. Like light, IR cannot penetrate opaque
objects; it is either directed (line-of-sight) or diffuse
technology. Inexpensive directed systems provide very
limited range (3 ft) and typically are used for PANs but
occasionally are used in specific WLAN applications.
High performance directed IR is impractical for mobile
users and is therefore used only to implement fixed
subnetworks. Diffuse (or reflective) IR WLAN systems do
not require line-of-sight, but cells are limited to individual
rooms.
IEEE 802.11 Layers
 The IEEE 802.11 protocol covers the MAC and Physical (PHY)
layer specifications of wireless LAN networking

802.2 Logical-link Control

DATA-LINK
LAYER
802.11 MAC

Frequency Direct PHYSICAL

Infrared
hopping sequence LAYER
802.11
 IEEE 802.11
– Became a standard in September 1997
– Two RF technologies defined; DSSS and FHSS
– IR also defined but not really used
– 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band
 IEEE 802.11b
– Became a standard in September 1999
– End user products began shipping in early 2000
– Only one RF technology defined; DSSS
– Up to 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band
802.11 (cont’d)
 IEEE 802.11a
– Became a standard in September 1999
– End user products began shipping in early 2002
– Only one RF technology defined; OFDM
– Up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band
– Incompatible with other 802.11/11b devices
 IEEE 802.11g
– Became a standard in June 2003
– End user products began shipping in early 2003
– Only one RF technology defined; OFDM
– Up to 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band
– Automatically switches to communicate with the slower
802.11/11b devices
802.11 (cont’d)

Comparison of IEEE WLAN Standards

802.11 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g

Standard
Ratified Sept 97 Sept 99 Sept 99 June 2003
Raw Data Rates
2 Mbps 54 Mbps 11 Mbps 54 Mbps
(Max)
Average Actual 1.2 Mbps 27 Mbps 4-5 Mbps 20-25 Mbps
Throughput
Frequency 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz
Available
Spectrum 83.5 Mhz 300 Mhz 83.5 Mhz 83.5 Mhz
PHY Layer DSSS/FHSS OFDM DSSS OFDM
 Major Organisations

Wireless Technologies
Organization Name Mission
Promoted

Trade Association

Wireless LAN Association Educational trade association

(WLANA) promoting the use of wireless Local Area Network, Public
http://www.wlana.org networking technology and working Access WLAN Networks, LAN to
to raise consumer awareness LAN Bridges and Personal Area
regarding the use and availability of Network (PAN)
WLANs

Technology Alliance

WIFI Alliance Certify interoperability of Wi-Fi (IEEE

http://www.wi-fi.org 802.11) products and to promote Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11
as the global wireless LAN standard
across all market segments

OFDM Forum OFDM – Orthogonal Frequency

http://www.ofdm-forum.org Foster a single OFDM standard
Division Multiplexing
Chapter 3 – WLAN Architecture

 Locating a WLAN
 Authentication and Association
 Service Sets
 Roaming
 Power Management Features
 Locating a WLAN
AP
 Listen (scanning)
– Passive

The station will scan all channels AP

It will listen to each channel for a period of
time Be
a co

Saves bandwidth n
STA

PASSIVE

AP
 Probe (requesting)
– Active
AP Pr
ob 
The station will scan all channels
e It will send a Probe request to get
re 

qu details on the BSS, if it exists in the

es
t current channel.
STA

ACTIVE
 Beacons

 Approximately 50 bytes
 50% is header and cyclic redundancy checking (CRC)
 Header includes
– Source MAC address
– Destination MAC address (Broadcast)
 Between the header and the CRC, the frame contains
– Service Set Identifier (SSID)
– Timestamp
– FH or DS parameter sets
– Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
– Supported rates

Header CRC
Beacons (cont’d)

 SSID
– Unique
– Case sensitive
– Alphanumeric value from 2 to
32 characters long
– Used for

Segmenting networks

Primitive security

Process of joining a network
Beacons (cont’d)
 Timestamp
– Synchronization
– Beacon interval AP

STA
Beacons (cont’d)
 FH or DS parameter sets
– Provide the signalling method (FHSS, DSSS, etc.)
 Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
– Is used for power saving mode
– Identifies a station by the association ID
 Supported rates
– Informs the station of what speeds are supported by the AP
Authentication and Association
 Authentication
– Open system > 2 step process
– Shared key (WEP) > 4 step process
 Association STATE 1
– Required to synchronize the station Unauthenticated &
with the AP Unassociated

 3 States Successful Deauthentication

Authentication Notification
– Unauthenticated – Unassociated
– Authenticated – Unassociated STATE 2
– Authenticated - Associated Authenticated & Deauthentication
Notification
Unassociated

Successful Deassociation
Association Notification

STATE 3
Authenticated &
Associated
WEP Authentication
Service Set
DS (usually Ethernet)
 BSS STA
AP
 ESS AP
 IBSS (ad hoc)
STA STA
STA
STA
STA STA

BSS BSS
ESS
STA

STA

STA

STA

IBSS
Roaming
 Seamlessly changing from one BSS to another
 Load balancing in congested area
 Not in the standard (vendor specific)

BSS

 Roaming possibilities BSS Roaming

– Within the same SSID

E.g. between APs
– Between SSIDs on the same IP network

E.g. between public & private access
– Between SSIDs on different IP networks (Mobile IP)

E.g. between admin & engineering networks
Power Management Features
 Continuous Aware Mode (always on)
 Power Save Polling (PSP) in BSS

1. STA GOES TO SLEEP

2. AP MARKS STA ASLEEP

3. AP BUFFERS STA PACKETS
4. STA WAKES UP
Beacon (TIM) 5. AP TELLS STA DATA IS WAITING
6. STA REQUESTS DATA
7. AP SENDS DATA

BSS
 Power Management Features (cont’d)

 Power Save Polling (PSP) in IBSS

zzzz….
Clients are asleep
zzzz….
zzzz….

Beacons

ATIM window

I have data to send

zzzz….
Here is the data
Chapter 4 – WLAN Infrastructure Devices

 Client Adapter
 Access-Point
– AP Modes

Root

Repeater

Bridge

Workgroup Bridge
– Additional Topologies
 WLAN Residential & Enterprise Gateways
Client Adapter

PCMCIA
 4 common types of cards:
– PCMCIA
– PCI PCI
– USB
– LM
 Typical tools on client adapter:
– Site survey tools
– Spectrum analyser USB
– Power & speed monitoring tools
– Profile configuration tool
– Link status monitoring
– & much more

LM
Access Point (AP)

 Different vendors
– Cisco
– D-Link
– Linksys
– Nortel
– Symbol
– and much more

 Different shape and size but all share

similar options
– Fixed or detachable antennas
– Advanced filtering capabilities
– Removable radio cards
– Variable output power
– Variable types of wired connectivity

10BaseTx, 10/100BaseTx,
100BaseTx, 100BaseFx, and more
AP Modes
 Root mode
 Repeater Mode
 Bridge Mode
– Root
– Non-root
– Repeater
– Access-point

 Additional topologies
– System redundancy
– Added bandwidth
Before we Proceed…

Standard Channel Usage to Avoid Interference

 Honeycomb topology using 3 non-overlapping channels (i.e. 1, 6 & 11)
 Channels overlap to cover an area larger than a single AP coverage
 Same frequency channels do not overlap (e.g. Ch 1)

Ch. 1 Ch. 11 Ch. 6

Ch. 11 Ch. 6 Ch. 1 Ch. 11

Ch. 1 Ch. 11 Ch. 6

 AP Modes (cont’d)

Wireless Root Mode

CHANNEL 1 CHANNEL 6

LAN Backbone

AP AP

Root Root
Mode Mode
AP Modes (cont’d)
Wireless Repeater Mode
 The repeater’s Ethernet port does not forward packets
 The repeater must be within reach of the root (overlap by 50%)
 The repeater is a client to the root like any other STAs
 Reduction of throughput !!!

CHANNEL 1 CHANNEL 1

LAN Backbone

Root Repeater
Mode Mode
AP Modes (cont’d)
Wireless Bridge Mode
 4 modes supported
– Root
– Non-Root
– Repeater
– Access-Point
 In bridge mode no STAs are allowed tA
en
– Except in Access-Point mode gm
se
N
LA

tB
en
gm
N se
LA

Bridge
Bridge
Mode
Mode
(Access-Point) tC
(Root) en
gm
se
N
Bridge LA
Mode
(Repeater)
Bridge
Mode
(Non-root)
AP Modes (cont’d)

Wireless Workgroup Bridge

 Aggregates multiple wired clients over a common wireless link
– Clients’ MAC will not be seen behind the workgroup bridge
 The workgroup bridge is a client to the AP
 The AP can associate with other STAs
 Useful for mobile setups

tA tB
en en
gm gm
e se
Ns N
LA LA

Workgroup
Root Bridge
Mode Mode
 AP Modes (cont’d)

Distances Limited by the 802.11 Specification

1.6km @ any Data Rate

AP to any client

40km @ 2Mbps
18km @11Mbps

Bridge to any client

Additional Topologies

System Redundancy Topology (Hot standby)

 One AP acts as a backup for a root AP
 Provides redundancy when one AP fails
 Standby AP must associate to the Root AP as a client
 Root and Standby APs communicate through radio and Ethernet
interfaces

LAN Backbone

Active AP Standby AP
 Additional Topologies (cont’d)

Added Bandwidth Topology

 Used in crowded workplace
 More than 1 channel (3 maximum) covering the same area
 Provides different AP to associate with

LAN Backbone

CHANNEL 1 CHANNEL 6
WLAN Residential & Enterprise Gateways

WLAN Residential Gateway - CAS ?

 ‘All-in one’ single device solution. Most preferred and
prevalent.
 Built to connect a small number of STAs to a single
device offering more than WLAN connectivity. They
generally offer:
– Ethernet connectivity both wired and wireless.
– Built-in hub or switch
– WAN port facing the Internet that may be connected
through one of the following: Cable modem, xDSL
modem, Analog modem, Satellite modem
– Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)
– Network Address Translation (NAT)
– Port Address Translation (PAT)
– Ethernet switching
– Print Services
– Routing
– Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
– Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server
– Firewall
WLAN Residential & Enterprise Gateways (cont’d)

WLAN Enterprise Gateway

 Provides specialised authentication and connectivity for wireless
clients
 Supports:
– many APs
– a variety of WLAN and WPAN technologies such as:

802.11 standard

Bluetooth

HomeRF

and more
– SNMP and allow enterprise-wide simultaneous user profiles upgrades
– RADIUS, LDAP, Windows NT authentication databases, and data
encryption using industry-standard VPN tunnel types

Enterprise
Gateway
Chapter 5 – 802.11 MAC Layer

 Review of wired LAN

 WLAN Frame format
 How WLAN communicate
– CSMA/CA & Collisions
– Request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS)
– DCF/PCF
– Inter frame spacing
– Dynamic Rate Shifting (DRS)
– Fragmentation
What Will be Covered in this Chapter

802.2 Logical-link Control

DATA-LINK
LAYER
802.11 MAC

Frequency Direct PHYSICAL

Infrared
hopping sequence LAYER

But before let’s have a review of wired LANs >>>

Review of Wired LAN
 Ethernet Technology
– Topology
– CSMA/CD
– Frame structure
Ethernet Technology

Topology

1st Generation

SEGMENT

Today
In Ethernet, CSMA/CD is the Access Method

Access Method (Media Access Control) :

 CSMA/CD : A network access method defined for
the Ethernet network.
 This method is based on 4 steps:
– Carrier Sense: Listen before talk
– Multiple Access: Issue when free
– Collision Detection: Listen during transmission
– Random Retry: Pause before retransmission
Ethernet 802.3 Frame Structure

Length: 72 bytes (min.) to 1526 bytes (max)

PRE SFD DA SA LEN DATA PAD FCS

LLC HIGHER PROTOCOLS DATA

Traffic Types
Unicast: (point to point)
00-02-0C-4B-59-78 = unique station address

Broadcast (point to all-point)

FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF = all stations group address

Multicast: (point to a group)

01-80-C2-00-00-01 = spanning tree group address
IEEE 802.3 vs. IEEE 802.11

 Similarity
– Same LLC (Logical Link Control). There are no differences for upper
layer protocol
 Differences
– WLAN is not private (not protected)
– WLAN is exposed to more interferences

Reflectors (metal objects, windows)

Changes in Rx signal strength when position change

Obstruction can affect the wave signal

Other device signals overlap the Tx path
– Mobility

Big advantage but need Roaming between AP and between
different IP networks (Mobile IP or DHCP)

Servers and services need to be modified
– IEEE 802.11 uses collision avoidance algorithm

IEEE 802.3 uses collision detection algorithm
802.11 Frames vs. 802.3 Frames
 802.11 and 802.3 do NOT use the same frame
 ALL 802.11 frames have the same overall format:
– Data Frame (between STA’s)
– Management Frames
– Control Frames (CTS, RTS, ACK)
 802.11 frames have a maximum of 2346
 802.3 frames have a maximum of 1500 bytes

802.3 Ethernet Frame

PRE SFD DA SA LEN DATA PAD FCS

802.11 Generic Frame Format

MAC HEADER

Frame Duration Address Address Address Sequence Address Frame CRC

control / ID 1 2 3 Control 4 body (checksum)
 802.11 Frames
Generic Frame Format
Byte 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4

Frame Duration Address Address Address Sequence Address Frame CRC

control / ID 1 2 3 Control 4 body (checksum)

Frag Seq
Numb Numb

Protocol Type Subtype To From More Retry Pwr More WEP Order
Version DS DS Frag Mgt Data
Bit 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
DS: Distribution System
This format is used to transmit information between stations.
Portions of this frame in the form of several fields are used in
other types of frames. The frame body field can be up to a
maximum of 2312 bytes that is enough to support
transportation of an Ethernet frame with maximum length (1500
bytes).
Control field - The control field consists of 11 fields that we will
briefly describe:
Protocol Version Subfield - This field provides a mechanism that
identifies the version of the 802.11 standard.
Type Subfield – This field identifies four types of frames
Subtype Subfield – This field identifies a specific type of frame
within the Type category
ToDS Subfield – This field is set to the value 1 when the frame
is addressed to an AP for forwarding to the distribution
system, else it is set to 0
FromDS Subfield – The value of this field is set to 1 if the frame is received from
the distribution system otherwise it is 0

More Fragments Subfield - This bit is set to 1 when there are more fragments
belonging to the same frame following the current fragment.

Retry Subfield – This bit indicates that this fragment is a retransmission of a

previously transmitted fragment. The receiver uses this to recognize duplicate
transmissions, which may happen when Acknowledgement packets are lost.

Power Management Subfield – This bit is used to indicate the power management
mode the station will be in after the transmission of the frame, which may set the
station in “power save” mode or “active” mode.
More Data Subfield – This field indicates that more frames are buffered to this
station.

WEP Subfield – This bit is indicating that the frame body is encrypted according
to the WEP algorithm.
Order Subfield – This means that this frame is sent using the Strictly-Ordered
Service class. The Strictly-Ordered Service Class is defined for users that
cannot accept change of the ordering between Unicast frames and Multicast
frames.
802.11 Data Link Layer
 802.11 and 802.3 use the same LLC format
– Same 48 bit addressing as other 802 LANs
– MAC address is 6 bytes or 48 bits
– Allows for simple bridging to wired networks

 MAC is unique in 802.11

802.2 Logical-link Control

DATA-LINK
LAYER
802.11 MAC

Frequency Direct PHYSICAL

Infrared
hopping sequence LAYER
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sub layer
 MAC: Regulates access to the medium
 CSMA: carrier sense multiple access
– CA: with collision avoidance (802.11)
– In RF collision detection is not possible

802.2 Logical-link Control

DATA-LINK
LAYER
802.11 MAC

Frequency Direct PHYSICAL

Infrared
hopping sequence LAYER
Why do we Need CSMA/CA?
 To ensure the reliability of data delivery
service
 Problems to solve
– The air is a noisy and unreliable media
– The Hidden Terminal
– Exposed terminal
– Mobility
 Solutions: frame exchange protocol
– Every frame is acknowledged (ACK)
– CTS & RTS frames
– Fragment long data frames Wall
Hidden Terminal Problem

A B STA A sends data to the

AP

STA B sends data to the AP

A B
At AP, data from STA A & B
collide (B can’t hear A)

 Consequences:
– throughput decreases
– delay increases
STA coverage
 Solving the Hidden Terminal Problem
Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS)
RTS
A B STA A sends a RTS
(STA B doesn’t hear it)

CTS
AP sends CTS
A B STA A & STA B receive
the CTS addressed to
STA A

DATA
A B
STA A sends data to the AP

STA/AP coverage
Solving the Hidden Terminal Problem
Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) (cont’d)
 Optional
 Not available on inexpensive home or SOHO products
 Provides control over the use of the shared medium
 The process is initiated by a RTS frame from a STA
 The receiving AP responds with a CTS frame
– Contains a time value that alerts other STA’s not to transmit
 Exposed Terminal Problem
Adhoc configuration

DATA
A B C D
STA B sends data to STA A

DATA
A B C D STA C wants to send data
to STA D

STA C cannot transmit due to

carrier sense
 Consequences:
RTS/CTS does not solve this problem – throughput decreases
– delay increases
STA coverage
Mobility

 When a mobile node moves from a hidden coverage area

while a transmission is in progress and it wants to transmits,
it causes collision even with RTS/CTS exchange because it
did not hear the RTS/CTS exchange
 When a mobile node moves while its own transmission is in
progress to a location where it is hidden from the
destination, the transmission goes unsuccessful

 Consequences:
– throughput decreases
– delay increases
What is CSMA/CA?
 Carrier sense done at two levels
– Physical carrier sense done at the physical layer
– Virtual carrier sense done at the MAC layer using Network
Allocation Vector (NAV) while RTS/CTS/Data/ACK are overheard:
solves problem of hidden and exposed terminal
 Reduces collision by deferring transmission if any of the carrier
sense mechanisms senses the channel busy
 Reduces probability of collision by random back-off when
senses the channel busy
WLAN Fragmentation
 Each fragment consist of a
– MAC Layer header
– Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
– Fragmentation number
 Each fragment has the same frame sequence number but
have different ascending fragment number
 Each fragment is acknowledged
 Applies only to unicast address
 Beacons (broadcast) and Ethernet multicast frames are not
fragmented
Fragmentation Implementation Tips
 Greater reliability
– Less collision
 Can be set between 256 and 2,048 bytes
– Fragmentation is activated by putting a
threshold
 If <5% collision, increase fragmentation
threshold
 If >5% collision, start a 1000 bytes
– Then lower the value until you get good
result
Dynamic Rate Shifting (DRS)
 Supported by DSSS and FHSS
 Speed adjustment in relation to the distance
 Discrete jump between 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps

11 Mbps

5.5 Mbps

2 Mbps
1 Mbps
Chapter 6 – 802.11 Physical Layer

 Spreading function
– DSSS
– FHSS
 OFDM
 Modulation overview
What Will be Covered in this Chapter

802.2 Logical-link Control

DATA-LINK
LAYER
802.11 MAC

Frequency Direct PHYSICAL

Infrared
hopping sequence LAYER

Let’s have a closer look at the Physical Layer >>>

Spreading Function
 Characteristics
– Wide bandwidth
– Low power – Hard to intercept and detect
– Noise like – Jamming is very difficult
 Two spread spectrum technologies:
– Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
– Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).

energy energy energy

interference

data result
SS Result
f f f
Signal : One frequency Signal spread over Reconstructed signal at AP
at high power multiple frequencies
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 Used for 802.11 and 802.11b
 Disperse signal over approximately 22Mhz
 11 channel set
– 3 non overlapping: 1, 6 and 11

Ch Freq Range
(GHz) (GHz)
1 2.412 2.401 – 2.423

2 2.417 2.406 – 2.428

3 2.422 2.411 – 2.433

4 2.427 2.416 – 2.438

5 2.432 2.421 – 2.443

6 2.437 2.426 – 2.448

7 2.442 2.431 – 2.453

8 2.447 2.436 – 2.458

9 2.452 2.441 – 2.463

10 2.457 2.446 – 2.468

11 2.462 2.451 – 2.473

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 In use for 802.11 only
 Disperse signal over approximately 83Mhz
 Channel selection is pseudorandom
 Carrier remain at a certain frequency for a specified time
(dwell time)
 The amount of time to switch to another frequency is the hop
time
 Max throughput is 2 Mbps

2.40Ghz 2.48Ghz
FREQUENCY
DSSS vs. FHSS
 DSSS Advantages
– Cost
– More popular
– Bandwidth is greater
– No “interframe spacing” like in FHSS

 FHSS Advantages
– Greater resistance to narrow band
interference
– Co location (DSSS has a limit of 3 AP co
location)
OFDM
 Is NOT a form of spread spectrum
 In use for 802.11a and 802.11g
 Divides data signal into 48 sub carriers
 Provides data transmission at 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 26, 48,
54 Mbps
 6 Mbps, 12 Mbps and 24 Mbps are mandatory for all
802.11 compliant products
 Minimize multipath propagation problems

frequency
samples frequency

C26 m carrier
o
 d
time samples C1 u
l
D1, D2, … a +
C-1 t
symbols
i
 o
C-26 n

OFDM symbol
Transmit time: 4 µs
Modulation
 Differential Binary Phase Shift  Differential Quadrature Phase
Keying (DBPSK) Shift Keying (DQPSK)
– 2 possible phase shifts – 4 possible phase shifts

90o “01”

Digits Digits

“1” “0” “10” “00”

180o 0o 180o 0o

Phase Phase
Shift Shift

270o “11”

+ +

time time

- -
“0” “1” “0” “00” “10” “01” “11” “10”
Modulation (cont’d)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16 & 64 QAM)
– 8 possible phase shifts

16 QAM
“010”
“011” 90o “000”
135o 45o
+
Tribits

“111” “001”
180o 0o
time

Phase
Shift -
“1001” “0001” “1010” “0100” “1111”
225o 315o

“110” 270o “101”

“100”

Amplitude bit

“0 001”

Tribits 64 QAM …
Modulation (cont’d)
Freq 2.4 GHz 5.2GHz
Standard 802.11 & 802.11b 802.11g 802.11a
Data PHY Modul PHY Modul PHY Modul PHY Modul
Rate ation ation ation ation
(Mbps)
1 DSSS DBPSK FHSS 2GFSK DS/FH DB/2G - -
2 DSSS DQPSK FHSS 4GFSK DS/FH DQ/4G - -
5.5 DSSS CCK - - DSSS CCK - -
6 - - - - OFDM DBPSK OFDM DBPSK
9 - - - - OFDM DBPSK OFDM DBPSK
11 DSSS CCK - - DSSS CCK - -
12 - - - - OFDM DQPSK OFDM DQPSK
18 - - - - OFDM DQPSK OFDM DQPSK
22 - - - - OFDM DQPSK OFDM DQPSK
24 - - - - OFDM DQPSK OFDM DQPSK
33 - - - - OFDM 16QAM OFDM 16QAM
36 - - - - OFDM 16QAM OFDM 16QAM
48 - - - - OFDM 64QAM OFDM 64QAM
54 - - - - OFDM 64QAM OFDM 64QAM

Must be supported by the standard

Appendix – 802.11 Evolution

 802.11 Alphabet Soup

– QoS (802.11e)
– Interoperability (802.11f)
– Security (802.11i)
– …
802.11 Alphabet Soup
802.11a & b

 802.11a
 High rate PHY, 6 to 54 Mb/s
 5 GHz UNII band
 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

 802.11b
 High rate PHY, 5.5 and 11 Mb/s
 2.4 GHz ISM band (83 MHz, 22 MHz channel)
 CCK (Complementary Code Keying)
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11c & d

 802.11c
– Bridging operation procedures between APs
– Used by AP manufacturers to insure interoperability
– Approved in 1998

 802.11d
– Extending operations to new regulatory domains
– Specifically 5 GHz
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11e - QoS

 QoS and improved efficiency of 802.11 MAC

 8 priority levels
 Remember 802.11 as media access control protocol
defined:
– DCF based on CSMA/CA
– PCF based on polling
 Problem: DCF and PCF don’t differentiate traffic types
 Standard in mid 2004
– Proposing enhancement to both coordination mode for
backward compatibility
 DCF to EDCF (Enhanced DCF)
 PCF to HCF (Hybrid Coordination Function)
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11e – QoS (cont’d)

 Enhanced DCF (EDCF)

– Arbitration Interframe Space (AIFS)

High priority traffic have a shorter AIFS

STA’s with lower priority wait longer before accessing the
medium
– To avoid collision within a traffic category
– STA’s countdown additional random number of time slots
(contention window)
– If STA 1 transmit before countdown ended, STA 2 waits next idle
period and continues countdown where it left off
 NO guarantees of service are provided, just a mechanism to
allocate bandwidth based on traffic categories
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11f & g

 802.11f - Inter AP Protocol

– Higher layer protocol
– Communication between APs
– Roaming between multi vendor APs
– Fast hand off

 802.11g – 54Mbps for 2.4 GHz ISM band

– > 20 Mb/s (max 54 Mb/s)
– Backward compatibility with 802.11b (through CCK and RTS/CTS)
– CCK and OFDM mandatory
– Other optional modulation schemes
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11h, i & j

 802.11h
– Use of 802.11a in 5 GHz band in Europe
– Include dynamic frequency selection (DFS) and transmit
power control (TPC)

 802.11i
– Enhanced security and authentication in 802.11
– WEP not enough
– Solution leveraging existing 802.1x standard

 802.11j
– Use of 802.11a in the Japanese 4.9 GHz band
802.11 Alphabet Soup (cont’d)
802.11n

 High throughput PHY and MAC

 108 to 320 Mb/s
 Reduced overhead
 Draft Version. Proposed standard
 Acronym List
16QAM 16 Level Quadrate Amplitude CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Avoidance
Modulation CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
2GFSK 2nd Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying Detection
3G Third Generation Cellular Mobile CTS Clear To Send
DBPSK Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying
Communications DA Destination Address
4GFSK 4th Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying DC Direct Current
64QAM 64 Level Quadrate Amplitude DCF Distribution Coordination Function
DFS Dynamic Frequency Selection
Modulation DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
AC Alternating Current DIFS Distributed Coordination Function
ACK Acknowledgement Interframe Space
DQPSK Differential Quadratic Phase Shift Keying
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop
DRS Dynamic Rate Shifting
(Line) DS Distribution System
AIFS Arbitration Interframe Space DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
AM Amplitude modulation EDCF Enhanced Distribution Coordination Function
ESS Extended Service Set
AP Access Point FAQ Frequently Asked Question
ARS Adaptive/Automatic Rate Shifting FCC Federal Communications Commission
ATIM Adhoc Traffic Indication Map FCS Frame Check Sequence
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
ATM Asynchronous Transfer mode FM Frequency Modulation
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying FSK Frequency Shift Keying
BSS Basic Service Set GHz Gigahertz
GPS Global Positioning System
CCA Clear Channel Assessment HCF Hybrid Coordinator Function
CCK Complementary Code Keying HEC Header Error Check
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access IBSS Independent Basic Service Set
CP Contention Period
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRTC Canadian Radio Television Committee
CSMA Carrier Sense Multiple Access
 Acronym List
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic PCF Point Coordination Function
Engineers PCS Personal Communication Services
IFS Interframe Space PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PHY Physical
IIT International Institute of Telecommunications
PIFS Point Coordination Function Interframe
IP Internet Protocol Space
IR Infra Red PLCP Physical Layer Convergence Procedure
ISM Industrial Scientific Medical PMD Physical Medium Dependent
ISP Internet Service Provider PPDU PLCP Protocol Data Unit
LAN Local Area Network PRE Preamble
PSDU Physical Layer Service Data Unit
LBT Listen Before Talk
PSK Phase Shift Keying
LEN Length PSP Power Save Polling
LLC Logical Link Control PTMP Point To Multipoint
MAC Media Access Control PTP Point To Point
Mbps Mega Bits per Second QAM Quadrate Amplitude Modulation
MHz Mega Hertz QoS Quality of Service
NAV Network Allocation Vector QPSK Quadratic Phase Shift Keying
RF Radio Frequency
NetBIOS Network Adapter Basic Input Output System RTS Request To Send
NIC Network Interface Card SA Source Address
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing SDLC Synchronous Data Link Control
OSI Open System Interconnection SFD Start Frame Delimiter
PAD Padding SIFS Shortest Interframe Space
PAN Personal Area Network SOHO Small Office Home Office
SSID Service Set IDentifier
PAR Project Authorisation Request
STA Station
SYNC Synchronisation
TG Task Group
 Acronym List

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UNII Unlicensed National Information
Infrastructure
VLAN Virtual Local Area Network
VoIP Voice over IP
VPN Virtual Private Network
WECA Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance
WEP Wired Equivalency Privacy
WG Working Group
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WISP Wireless Internet Service Provider
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WLANA Wireless Local Area Network Association
WLIF Wireless LAN Interoperability Forum
XOR eXclusive OR

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