SIMPLE STRESS & STRAIN

1.2 STRESS
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting
force is set up within the component, this internal resistance
force per unit area is called stress. SI unit is N/m(Pa).
1kPa=1000Pa, 1MPa=10^6 Pa, 1 Gpa=10^9Pa, 1 Terra
Pascal=10^12 Pa
In engineering applications, we use the
the original cross section area of the specimen
and it is known as conventional stress or
Engineering stress
1.3 STRAIN
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some
change of dimension of the body. The ratio of change of dimension
of the body to its original dimension is known as strain
Strain is a dimensionless quantity
Strain may be:- a) Tensile strain b) Compressive strain c)
Volumetric strain d) Shear strain
Tensile strain- Ratio of increase in length to original length of
the body when it is subjected to a pull force
Compressive strain- Ratio of decrease in length to original
length of the body when it is subjected to a push force
Volumetric strain- Ratio of change of volume of the body to the
original volume
Shear strain-Strain due to shear stress
1.4 TYPE OF STRESSES
1.4.1TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
Direct stress may be normal stress or shear stress
Normal stress () is the stress which acts in direction
perpendicular to the area. Normal stress is further classified
into tensile stress and compressive stress.
Tensile stress is the stress induced in a body, when it is
subjected to two equal and opposite pulls (tensile forces) as a
result of which there is a tendency in increase in length
It acts normal to the area and pulls on the area
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
Consider a bar subjected to a tensile force P at its ends. Let
A= Cross sectional area of the body
L=Original length of the body
dL= Increase in length of the body due to its pull P
= Stress induced in the body
= Tensile strain
Consider a section X-X which divides the body into two halves
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
The left part of the section x-x, will be in equilibrium if P=R
(Resisting force). Similarly the right part of the section x-x
will be in equilibrium if P=R (Resisting force)
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Tensile stress)
Tensile stress ()= Resisting force/ Cross sectional area=
Applied force/Cross sectional area=P/A
Tensile strain= Increase in length/Original length= dL/L
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Compressive stress)

Compressive stress
Compressive stress:- Stress induced in a body, when subjected to
two equal and opposite pushes as a result of which there is a
tendency of decrease in length of the body
It acts normal to the area and it pushes on the area
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Compressive stress)
=Resisting force/ cross sectional area= Applied force/
cross sectional area
Compressive strain= Decrease in length/ Original length= -
dL/L
Sign convention for direct stress and strain:- Tensile stresses
and strains are considered positive in sense producing an
increase in length. Compressive stresses and strains are
considered negative in sense producing decrease in length
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
Shear stress :- Stress Induced in a body, when subjected to
two equal and opposite forces which are acting tangentially
across the resisting section as a result of which the body tends
to shear off across that section
Consider a rectangular block of height h, length L and width
unity. Let the bottom face AB of the block be fixed to the
surface as shown. Let P be the tangential force applied along
top face CD of the block. For the equilibrium of the block,
the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction force R which
is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied
tangential force P
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
Consider a section X-X cut parallel to the applied force which splits
rectangle into two parts

For the upper part to be in equilibrium; Applied force P=Resisting force

R
For the lower part to be in equilibrium; Applied force P=Resisting force
R
Hence, shear stress = Resisting force/Resisting area=P/L x 1=P/L
Shear stress is tangential to the area on which it acts
1.4.1 TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
(Shear stress)
As the face AB is fixed, the rectangular section ABCD will be
distorted to ABC1D1, such that new vertical face AD1 makes an
angle with the initial face AD

Angle is called shear strain. As is very small,

=tan =DD1/AD=dl/h
Hence shear strain=dl/h
1.5 ELASTICITY & ELASTIC LIMIT
The property of a body by virtue of which it undergoes
deformation when subjected to an external force and regains its
original configuration (size and shape) upon the removal of the
deforming external force is called elasticity.
The stress corresponding to the limiting value of external force
upto and within which the deformation disappears completely
upon the removal of external force is called elastic limit
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded
dimensions when load is removed.
If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic
limit, the material loses to some extent its property of elasticity. If
now the force is removed, the material will not return to its
original shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in
the material
1.6 HOOKES LAW & ELASTIC MODULI
Hookes law states that: When a body is loaded within
elastic limit, the stress is proportional to strain developed or
Within the elastic limit the ratio of stress applied to strain
developed is a constant
The constant is known as Modulus of elasticity or Elastic
modulus or Youngs modulus
Mathematically within elastic limit
Stress/Strain=/e=E
= P/A; e =L/L
E=PL/A L
1.7 HOOKES LAW & ELASTIC MODULI
Young's modulus (E) is generally assumed to be the same in
tension or compression and for most of engineering
applications has a high numerical value. Typically, E=210 x
10^9 N/m (=210 GPa) for steel
Modulus of rigidity, G= /= Shear stress/ shear strain
Factor of safety= Ultimate stress/Permissible stress
In most engineering applications strains donot often exceed
0.003 so that the assumption that deformations are small in
relation to origional dimensions is generally valid
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)
Standard tensile test involves subjecting a circular bar of
uniform cross section to a gradually increasing tensile load
until the failure occurs
Tensile test is carried out to compare the strengths of various
materials
Change in length of a selected gauge length of bar is recorded
by extensometers
A graph is plotted with load vs extension or stress vs strain
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)

E
E Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity

Strength is affected by alloying, heat

treating, and manufacturing process
but stiffness (Modulus of Elasticity)
is not.
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST)
1.8 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE
TEST DIAGRAM)
A Limit of proportionality; It is the point where the linear
nature of the stress strain graph ceases
B Elastic limit; It is the limiting point for the condition that
material behaves elastically, but hooke's law does not apply . For
most practical purposes it can be often assumed that limit of
proportionality and elastic limits are the same
Beyond the elastic limits, there will be some permanent
deformation or permanent set when the load is removed
C (Upper Yield point), D (Lower yield point) Points after which
strain increases without correspondingly high increase in load or
stress
E Ultimate or maximum tensile stress; Point where the necking
starts
F Fracture point
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
A) 1-Dimensional case (due to pull or push or shear force)
=E
B) 2-Dimensional case
Consider a body of length L, width B and depth D. Let the body be
subjected to an axial load. Due to this axial load, there is a
deformation along the length of the body. This strain
corresponding to this deformation is called longitudinal strain.
Similarly there are deformations along directions perpendicular to
line of application of force. The strains corresponding to these
deformations are called lateral strains
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Longitudinal strain is always of opposite sign of that of lateral
strain. i.e if the longitudinal strain is tensile, lateral strains
are compressive and vice versa
Every longitudinal strain is accompanied by lateral strains in
orthogonal directions
Ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poissons
ratio (); Mathematically,
=-Lateral strain/Longitudinal strain
Consider a rectangular figure ABCD subjected a stress in x
direction and in y direction
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Strain along x direction due to x= x/E
Strain along x direction due to y=- x y/E
Total strain in x direction ex= x/E - x y/E
Similarly total strain in y direction, ey= y/E - x x/E
In the above equation tensile stresses are considered as
positive and compressive stresses as negative
C) 3 Dimensional case:-
Consider a 3 D body subjected to 3 orthogonal normal
stresses in x,y and z directions respectively
1.9 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN
Strain along x direction due to x= x/E
Strain along x direction due to y=- x y/E
Strain along x direction due to z=- x z/E
Total strain in x direction ex= x/E - x (y/E + z/E )
Similarly total strain in y direction, ey= y/E - x (xE +
z/E )
Similarly total strain in z direction, ez= z/E - x (xE +
y/E )
1.10 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING
CROSS SECTION
Consider a bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and
hence of different cross sectional areas) as shown below. Let this
bar be subjected to an axial load P.

The total change in length will be obtained by adding the changes

in length of individual sections
Total stress in section 1: 1=E1 x L1/L1
1 x L1/E1=L1
1=P/A1; Hence L1=PL1/A1E1
Similarly, L2=PL2/A2E2; L3=PL3/A3E3
1.10 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING
CROSS SECTION
Hence total elongation L=Px (L1/A1E1+L2/A2E2 +
L3/A3E3)
If the Youngs modulus of different sections are the same,
E1=E2=E3=E; Hence L=P/Ex (L1/A1+L2/A2 + L3/A3)
When a number of loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain,
according to principle of superposition, will be the algebraic sum
of strains caused by individual loads
While using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to
a number of direct forces (tensile or compressive) at different
sections along the length of the body, first the free body diagram
of individual section is drawn. Then the deformation of each
section is calculated and the total deformation is equal to the
algebraic sum of deformations of individual sections
1.13 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths but of
different materials rigidly fixed with each other and behaving
as one unit for elongation and shortening when subjected to
axial loads is called composite bar.
Consider a composite bar as shown below
Let
P Applied load
L Length of bar
A1 Area of cross section of Inner member
A2 Cross sectional area of Outer member
1.13 ANALYSIS OF BARS OF
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
Strain developed in the outer member= Strain developed in
the inner member
1/E1 = 2/E2
Total load (P)= Load in the inner member (P1) + Load in
the outer member (P2)
1 x A1 + 2 x A2= P
Solving above two equations, we get the values of 1, 2 &
1 and 2
1.16 THERMAL STRESS
Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in
temperature. Thermal stresses are set up in a body, when the
temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is restricted
from expanding or contracting
Consider a body which is heated to a certain temperature
Let
L= Original length of the body
T=Rise in temp
E=Young's modulus
=Coefficient of linear expansion
dL= Extension of rod due to rise of temp
If the rod is free to expand, Thermal strain developed
t= L/L= x T
1.16 THERMAL STRESS
The extension of the rod, L= L x x T
If the body is restricted from expanding freely, Thermal stress
developed is t/t=E
t= E x x T
Stress and strain when the support yields:-
If the supports yield by an amount equal to , then the actual
expansion is given by the difference between the thermal
strain and
Actual strain, = (L x x T )/L
Actual stress= Actual strain x E= (L x x T )/L x E