DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?

How are strength and dislocation motion related?

How do we increase strength?

How can heating change strength and other properties?

Chapter 7- 1
DISLOCATIONS & MATERIALS CLASSES
Metals: Disl. motion easier.
-non-directional bonding
-close-packed directions
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

Motion hard.
-need to avoid ++ and --
neighbors.

Chapter 7- 2
 DISLOCATION MOTION
Produces plastic deformation, Plastically
Depends on incrementally breaking stretched
bonds. zinc
single
crystal.
Adapted from Fig.
7.9, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.9 is from
C.F. Elam, The
Distortion of
Metal Crystals,
Oxford University
Adapted from Fig. 7.1, Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.1 is adapted from A.G. Press, London,
Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1935.)
New York, 1976. p. 153.)

If dislocations don't move, Adapted from Fig.

deformation doesn't happen! 7.8, Callister 6e.

Chapter 7- 3
 STRESS AND DISLOCATION MOTION
Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
Applied tension can produce such a stress.

slip plane
normal, ns

ns
A
As

tR cos cos

Chapter 7- 4
 CRITICAL RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS
Condition for dislocation motion: tR tCRSS

Crystal orientation can make typically

it easy or hard to move disl.
10-4G to 10 -2G
tR cos cos

Chapter 7- 5
 DISL. MOTION IN POLYCRYSTALS
Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
crystal to another.
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 6e.
tR will vary from one (Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of C.
crystal to another. Brady, National
Bureau of
Standards [now
the National
The crystal with the Institute of
Standards and
largest tR yields first. Technology,
Gaithersburg,
MD].)

Other (less favorably

oriented) crystals
yield later.
300 mm

Chapter 7- 6
4 STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTHENING:
1: REDUCE GRAIN SIZE

Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength" slip plane B
n
increases with ai
gr
misorientation. grain A

gr
Smaller grain size:

a
Adapted from Fig. 7.12, Callister 6e.

in
(Fig. 7.12 is from A Textbook of Materials
more barriers to slip.

bo
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson

u
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

nd
ar
y
Hall-Petch Equation: yield o k y d 1/ 2

Chapter 7- 7
 GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING:
AN EXAMPLE
70wt%Cu-30wt%Zn brass alloy

yield o k y d 1/ 2

Data:

Adapted from Fig. 7.13,

Callister 6e.
0.75mm
(Fig. 7.13 is adapted
from H. Suzuki, "The
Relation Between the Adapted from Fig. 4.11(c),
Structure and Callister 6e. (Fig. 4.11(c) is
Mechanical Properties courtesy of J.E. Burke,
of Metals", Vol. II, General Electric Co.
National Physical
Laboratory Symposium
No. 15, 1963, p. 524.)

Chapter 7- 8
 ANISOTROPY IN yield
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
-before rolling -after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.11 is
from W.G. Moffatt, G.W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
-isotropic -anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

Chapter 7- 9
 ANISOTROPY IN DEFORMATION
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
rolled plate: side view Los Alamos
National Labs.
Used with
rolling direction

permission.

end plate
thickness
view direction
The noncircular end view shows:
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7- 10
 STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 2:
SOLID SOLUTIONS

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

Impurity generates local shear at Impurity generates local shear at

A and B that opposes disl motion C and D that opposes disl motion
to the right. to the right.

Chapter 7- 11
 EX: SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING IN COPPER
Tensile strength & yield strength increase w/wt% Ni.

Adapted from Fig.

7.14 (a) and (b),
Callister 6e.

1/ 2
Empirical relation: y ~ C
Alloying increases y and TS.

Chapter 7- 12
 STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 3:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
aka Age hardening. Hard precipitates are difficult to
shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).

"Changes in solid solubility with temperature to

produce fine particles of an impurity phase will increase
the strength."Result: 1
~
y
S Chapter 7- 13
 SIMULATION:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
View onto slip plane of Nimonic PE16
Precipitate volume fraction: 10%
Average precipitate size: 64 b (b = 1 atomic slip distance)

Simulation courtesy of Volker

Mohles, Institut fr
Materialphysik der Universitt,
Mnster, Germany
(http://www.uni-
munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.

Chapter 7- 14
 APPLICATION:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from Fig.
11.0, Callister 5e.
(Fig. 11.0 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial
Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.24, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.24 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
Chapter 7- 15
 STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 4:
COLD WORK (%CW)
Room temperature deformation.
Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
die
Ao blank Ad
Adapted from Fig.
11.7, Callister 6e.

-Drawing force -Extrusion

die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die

Ao Ad
%CW x100
Ao
Chapter 7- 16
 DISLOCATIONS DURING COLD WORK
Ti alloy after cold working:

Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)

Chapter 7- 17
 RESULT OF COLD WORK
Dislocation density (rd) goes up:
Carefully prepared sample: rd ~ 103 mm/mm3
Heavily deformed sample: rd ~ 1010 mm/mm3
Ways of measuring dislocation density:
40mm
Area, A dislocation Micrograph
pit adapted from
Fig. 7.0, Callister
OR 6e. (Fig. 7.0 is
courtesy of W.G.
N dislocation
Johnson,
pits (revealed General Electric
by etching) Co.)
r N
d
A
Yield stress increases
as rd increases:

Chapter 7- 18
 SIMULATION: DISLOCATION
MOTION/GENERATION
Tensile loading (horizontal dir.) of a FCC metal with
notches in the top and bottom surface.
Over 1 billion atoms modeled in 3D block.
Note the large increase in disl. density.

Simulation courtesy
of Farid Abraham. Used with
permission from International
Business Machines
Corporation.

Chapter 7- 19
 DISLOCATION-DISLOCATION
TRAPPING
Dislocation generate stress.
This traps other dislocations.

Chapter 7- 20
 IMPACT OF COLD WORK
Yield strength (y ) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.18,

Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.18 is
from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th
ed., B. Bardes (Ed.),
American Society for
Metals, 1978, p. 221.)

Chapter 7- 21
 COLD WORK ANALYSIS
What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
ro2 rd2
%CW x100 35.6%
2
ro

Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.17 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p.
226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2,
9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) Chapter 7- 22
 -e BEHAVIOR VS TEMPERTURE
Results for
polycrystalline iron:

Adapted from Fig. 6.14,

Callister 6e.

y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.

%EL increases with increasing test temperature.
Why? Vacancies
help dislocations
past obstacles.

Chapter 7- 23
 EFFECT OF HEATING AFTER %CW
1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
Effects of cold work are reversed!

3 Annealing
stages to
discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.20, Callister 6e. (Fig.
7.20 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R.
van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing
of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and
Alloys, American Society for Metals,
1940, p. 139.)

Chapter 7- 24
 RECOVERY
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Chapter 7- 25
 RECRYSTALLIZATION
New crystals are formed that:
--have a small disl. density
--are small
--consume cold-worked crystals.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (a),(b),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General
Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 7- 26
 FURTHER RECRYSTALLIZATION
All cold-worked crystals are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (c),(d),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General
Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7- 27
 GRAIN GROWTH
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (d),(e),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General
Electric
Company.)
After 8 s, After 15 min,
580C 580C
coefficient dependent
Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
n n
at time t. d d o Kt
Chapter 7- 28
 SUMMARY

Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
Here, strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size.

Chapter 7- 29