Ch.

2 – Advanced IP Address
Management

CCNP 1 version 3.0 – Advanced Routing

Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College

1
Note to instructors

• If you have downloaded this presentation from the Cisco Networking

Academy Community FTP Center, this may not be my latest version of
this PowerPoint.
• For the latest PowerPoints for all my CCNA, CCNP, and Wireless
classes, please go to my web site:
http://www.cabrillo.cc.ca.us/~rgraziani/
• The username is cisco and the password is perlman for all of
my materials.
• If you have any questions on any of my materials or the curriculum,
please feel free to email me at [email protected] (I really don’t
mind helping.) Also, if you run across any typos or errors in my
presentations, please let me know.
• I will add “(Updated – date)” next to each presentation on my web site
that has been updated since these have been uploaded to the FTP
center.
Thanks! Rick
Rick Graziani [email protected] 2
Objectives

This module explores the evolution and extension of IPv4,

including the key scalability features that engineers have
added to it over the years:
• Subnetting
• Classless interdomain routing (CIDR)
• Variable length subnet masking (VLSM)
• Route summarization

Finally, this module examines advanced IP implementation

techniques such as the following:
• IP unnumbered
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Helper addresses
Rick Graziani [email protected] 3
A few notes…

• The following slides are NOT from the online curriculum.

• However, they do cover the same topics, just with different
examples.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 4

IPv4 Address Classes

Rick Graziani [email protected] 5

IPv4 Address Classes

• No medium size host networks

• In the early days of the Internet, IP addresses were allocated to
organizations based on request rather than actual need.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 6
IPv4 Address Classes

Class D Addresses
• A Class D address begins with binary 1110 in the first octet.
• First octet range 224 to 239.
• Class D address can be used to represent a group of hosts called a
host group, or multicast group.

Class E Addresses
First octet of an IP address begins with 1111
• Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes and should
not be used for addressing hosts or multicast groups. 

Rick Graziani [email protected] 7

IP addressing crisis

• Address Depletion
• Internet Routing Table Explosion
Rick Graziani [email protected] 8
IPv4 Addressing

Subnet Mask
• One solution to the IP address shortage was thought to be the
subnet mask.
• Formalized in 1985 (RFC 950), the subnet mask breaks a single
class A, B or C network in to smaller pieces.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 9

Subnet Example

Given the Class B address 190.52.0.0

Class B Network Network Host Host

Using /24
subnet... Network Network Subnet Host

Internet routers still “see” this net as 190.52.0.0

190.52.1.2 But internal routers think all

190.52.2.2 these addresses are on different
190.52.3.2 networks, called subnetworks

Rick Graziani [email protected] 10

Subnet Example

Network Network Subnet Host

Using the 3rd octet, 190.52.0.0 was divided into:

190.52.1.0 190.52.2.0 190.52.3.0 190.52.4.0
190.52.5.0 190.52.6.0 190.52.7.0 190.52.8.0
190.52.9.0 190.52.10.0 190.52.11.0 190.52.12.0
190.52.13.0 190.52.14.0 190.52.15.0 190.52.16.0
190.52.17.0 190.52.18.0 190.52.19.0 and so on ...

Rick Graziani [email protected] 11

All Zeros and All Ones Subnets

Using the All Ones Subnet

• There is no command to enable or disable the use of the all-ones subnet, it is
enabled by default.
Router(config)#ip subnet-zero
• The use of the all-ones subnet has always been explicitly allowed and the use
of subnet zero is explicitly allowed since Cisco IOS version 12.0.

RFC 1878 states, "This practice (of excluding all-zeros and all-ones subnets) is
obsolete! Modern software will be able to utilize all definable networks."
Today, the use of subnet zero and the all-ones subnet is generally accepted
and most vendors support their use, though, on certain networks, particularly
the ones using legacy software, the use of subnet zero and the all-ones
subnet can lead to problems.

CCO: Subnet Zero and the All-Ones Subnet

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_tech_note09186a
0080093f18.shtml
Rick Graziani [email protected] 12
Need a Subnet Review?

• If you need a Review of Subnets, please review the

following links on my web site:
– Subnet Review (PowerPoint)
– Subnets Explained (Word Doc)

Rick Graziani [email protected] 13

Long Term Solution: IPv6 (coming)

• IP v6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit address

space, yielding
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
possible addresses.
• IPv6 has been slow to arrive
• IPv4 revitalized by new features, making IPv6 a luxury, and not
a desperately needed fix
• IPv6 requires new software; IT staffs must be retrained
• IPv6 will most likely coexist with IPv4 for years to come.
• Some experts believe IPv4 will remain for more than 10 years.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 14

Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517,

1518, 1519, 1520
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009
• Private Addressing - RFC 1918
• NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address
Translation) – RFC

Rick Graziani [email protected] 15

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

• By 1992, members of the IETF were having serious concerns about the
exponential growth of the Internet and the scalability of Internet routing
tables.
• The IETF was also concerned with the eventual exhaustion of 32-bit IPv4
address space.
• Projections were that this problem would reach its critical state by 1994
or 1995.
• IETF’s response was the concept of Supernetting or CIDR, “cider”.
• To CIDR-compliant routers, address class is meaningless.
– The network portion of the address is determined by the network
subnet mask, network-prefix or prefix-length (/8, /19, etc.)
– The network address is NOT determined by the first octet (first two
bits), 200.10.0.0/16 or 15.10.160.0/19
• CIDR helped reduced the Internet routing table explosion with
supernetting and reallocation of IPv4 address space.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 16
Active BGP entries

Report last updated at Thu, 16 Jan 2003

http://bgp.potaroo.net/
Rick Graziani [email protected] 17
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

• First deployed in 1994, CIDR dramatically improves IPv4’s scalability

and efficiency by providing the following:
– Eliminates traditional Class A, B, C addresses allowing for more
efficient allocation of IPv4 address space.
– Supporting route aggregation (summarization), also known as
supernetting, where thousands of routes could be represented by a
single route in the routing table.
• Route aggregation also helps prevent route flapping on Internet
routers using BGP. Flapping routes can be a serious concern
with Internet core routers.
• CIDR allows routers to aggregate, or summarize, routing information
and thus shrink the size of their routing tables.
– Just one address and mask combination can represent the routes to
multiple networks.
– Used by IGP routers within an AS and EGP routers between AS.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 18

Without CIDR, a
router must
maintain
individual
routing table
entries for these
class B
networks.

With CIDR, a
router can
summarize
these routes
into eight
networks by
using a 13-bit
prefix:
172.24.0.0 /13
Steps:
1. Count the number of left-most matching bits, /13
2. Add all zeros after the last matching bit:
172.24.0.0 = 10101100 00011000 00000000 00000000
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CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

• By using a prefix address to summarizes routes, administrators can

keep routing table entries manageable, which means the following
– More efficient routing
– A reduced number of CPU cycles when recalculating a routing
table, or when sorting through the routing table entries to find a
match
– Reduced router memory requirements
• Route summarization is also known as:
– Route aggregation
– Supernetting
• Supernetting is essentially the inverse of subnetting.
• CIDR moves the responsibility of allocation addresses away from a
centralized authority (InterNIC).
• Instead, ISPs can be assigned blocks of address space, which they
can then parcel out to customers.
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 ISP/NAP Hierarchy - “The Internet: Still hierarchical after all
these years.” Jeff Doyle (Tries to be anyways!)

N A P ( N e t w o r k A c c e s s P o in t )

N e tw o rk N e tw o rk
S e r v ic e S e r v ic e
P r o v id e r P r o v id e r

R e g io n a l R e g io n a l R e g io n a l R e g io n a l
S e r v ic e S e r v ic e S e r v ic e S e r v ic e
P r o v id e r P r o v id e r P r o v id e r P r o v id e r

IS P IS P IS P IS P IS P IS P IS P IS P

S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s S u b s c r ib e r s

Rick Graziani [email protected] 21

 Supernetting Example

• Company XYZ needs to address 400 hosts.

• Its ISP gives them two contiguous Class C addresses:
– 207.21.54.0/24
– 207.21.55.0/24
• Company XYZ can use a prefix of 207.21.54.0 /23 to supernet
these two contiguous networks. (Yielding 510 hosts)
• 207.21.54.0 /23
– 207.21.54.0/24
– 207.21.55.0/24

Rick Graziani [email protected]

23 bits in common 22
Supernetting Example

• With the ISP acting as the addressing authority for a CIDR block of
addresses, the ISP’s customer networks, which include XYZ, can be
advertised among Internet routers as a single supernet.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 23

CIDR and the Provider

Another example of route aggregation.

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 CIDR and the provider

200.199.48.0/25

Summarization from
200.199.56.0/23 the customer
networks to their
provider.

Even Better:
200.199.48.32/27 11001000 11000111 00110000 0 0100000
200.199.48.64/27 11001000 11000111 00110000 0 1000000
200.199.48.96/27 11001000 11000111 00110000 0 1100000
200.199.48.0/25 11001000 11000111 00110000 0 0000000
(As long as there are no other routes elsewhere within this range, well…)

200.199.56.0/24 11001000 11000111 0011100 0 00000000

200.199.57.0/24 11001000 11000111 0011100 1 00000000
200.199.56.0/23 11001000 11000111 0011100 0 00000000
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 CIDR and the provider
200.199.48.0/25

200.199.56.0/23 Further summarization

happens with the next
upstream provider.

200.199.48.0/25 11001000 11000111 0011 0000 00000000

200.199.49.0/25 11001000 11000111 0011 0001 00000000
200.199.56.0/23 11001000 11000111 0011 1000 00000000

200.199.48.0/20 11001000 11000111 0011 0000 00000000

20 bits in common

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CIDR Restrictions

• Dynamic routing protocols must send network address and mask (prefix-
length) information in their routing updates.
• In other words, CIDR requires classless routing protocols for dynamic routing.
• However, you can still configure summarized static routes, after all, that is
what a 0.0.0.0/0 route is.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 27

Summarized and Specific Routes: Longest-bit Match
(more later)

Merida
Summarized Update Specific Route Update
172.16.0.0/16 172.16.5.0/24

172.16.5.0/24
172.16.1.0/24
Quito Cartago

172.16.2.0/24 172.16.10.0/24
• Merida receives a summarized /16 update from Quito and a more
specific /24 update from Cartago.
• Merida will include both routes in the routing table.
• Merida will forward all packets matching at least the first 24 bits of
172.16.5.0 to Cartago (172/16/5/0/24), longest-bit match.
• Merida will forward all other packets matching at least the first 16 bits
to Quito (172.16.0.0/16).
Rick Graziani [email protected] 28
Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517,

1518, 1519, 1520
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009
• Private Addressing - RFC 1918
• NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address
Translation) – RFC

Rick Graziani [email protected] 29

VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)

• Limitation of using only a single subnet mask across a

given network-prefix (network address, the number of
bits in the mask) was that an organization is locked into a
fixed-number of of fixed-sized subnets.
• 1987, RFC 1009 specified how a subnetted network could
use more than one subnet mask.
• VLSM = Subnetting a Subnet
– “If you know how to subnet, you can do VLSM!”

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VLSM – Simple Example

1st octet 2nd octet 3rd octet 4th octet

10.0.0.0/8 10 Host Host Host

10.0.0.0/16 10 Subnet Host Host

10.0.0.0/16 10 0 Host Host

10.1.0.0/16 10 1 Host Host
10.2.0.0/16 10 2 Host Host
10.n.0.0/16 10 … Host Host
10.255.0.0/16 10 255 Host Host
• Subnetting a /8 subnet using a /16 mask gives us 256 subnets with
65,536 hosts per subnet.
• Let’s take the 10.2.0.0/16 subnet and subnet it further…
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VLSM – Simple Example

Network Subnet Host Host

10.2.0.0/16 10 2 Host Host

10.2.0.0/24 10 2 Subnet Host

10.2.0.0/24 10 2 0 Host
10.2.1.0/24 10 2 1 Host
10.2.n.0/24 10 2 … Host
10.2.255.0/24 10 2 255 Host
• Note: 10.2.0.0/16 is now a summary of all of the 10.2.0.0/24
subnets.
• Summarization coming soon!
Rick Graziani [email protected] 32
VLSM – Simple Example
10.0.0.0/8 “subnetted using /16”

Subnet 1st host Last host Broadcast

10.0.0.0/16 10.0.0.1 10.0.255.254 10.0.255.255
10.1.0.0/16 10.1.0.1 10.1.255.254 10.1.255.255

10.2.0.0/16 “sub-subnetted using /24”

–Subnet 1st host Last host Broadcast
–10.2.0.0/24 10.2.0.1 10.2.0.254 10.2.0.255
–10.2.1.0/24 10.2.1.1 10.2.1.254 10.2.1.255
–10.2.2.0/24 10.2.2.1 10.2.2.254 10.2.2.255
– Etc.
–10.2.255.0/24 10.2.255.1 10.2.255.254 10.2.255.255

10.3.0.0/16 10.3.0.1 10.3.255.254 10.0.255.255

Etc.
10.255.0.0/16 10.255.0.1 10.255.255.254 10.255.255.255

Rick Graziani [email protected] 33

 VLSM – Simple Example

Subnets An example of VLSM, NOT of good network design.

10.0.0.0/16
10.1.0.0/16 10.2.0.0/24
10.1.0.0/16 10.7.0.0/16
10.2.1.0/24
10.2.0.0/16 10.3.0.0/16
10.2.0.0/24
10.2.6.0/24
10.2.1.0/24 10.2.8.0/24
10.2.2.0/24 10.4.0.0/16 10.5.0.0/16 10.8.0.0/16
Etc.
10.2.255.0/24
10.3.0.0/16 10.2.3.0/24 10.2.5.0/24 10.6.0.0/16 10.2.4.0/24
Etc.
10.255.0.0/16
• Your network can now have 255 /16 subnets with 65,534 hosts each AND
256 /24 subnets with 254 hosts each.
• All you need to make it work is a classless routing protocol that passes
the subnet mask with the network address in the routing updates.
• Classless routing protocols: RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, BGPv4 (coming)
Rick Graziani [email protected] 34
Another VLSM Example using /30 subnets

207.21.24.0/24 network subnetted into eight /27 (255.255.255.224)

subnets

207.21.24.192/27 subnet, subnetted into eight /30

(255.255.255.252) subnets
• This network has seven /27 subnets with 30 hosts each AND
eight /30 subnets with 2 hosts each.
• /30 subnets are very useful for serial networks.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 35
 207.21.24.192/27 207.21.24. 11000000
/30 Hosts Bcast 2 Hosts
0 207.21.24.192/30 207.21.24. 110 00000 01 10 11 .193 & .194
1 207.21.24.196/30 207.21.24. 110 00100 01 10 11 .197 & .198
2 207.21.24.200/30 207.21.24. 110 01000 01 10 11 .201 & .202
3 207.21.24.204/30 207.21.24. 110 01100 01 10 11 .205 & .206
4 207.21.24.208/30 207.21.24. 110 10000 01 10 11 .209 & .210
5 207.21.24.212/30 207.21.24. 110 10100 01 10 11 .213 & .214
6 207.21.24.216/30 207.21.24. 110 11000 01 10 11 .217 & .218
7 207.21.24.220/30 207.21.24. 110 11100 01 10 11 .221 & .222

Rick Graziani [email protected] 36

 207.21.24.192/3 207.21.24.204/3
0 0
207.21.24.216/3
207.21.24.96/27 0 207.21.24.128/27
207.21.24.64/27
207.21.24.208/3 207.21.24.212/3
207.21.24.196/3 0
207.21.24.200/3 0
0 0

207.21.24.160/27 207.21.24.224/27 207.21.24.32/27 207.21.24.0/27

• This network has seven /27 subnets with 30 hosts each AND seven
/30 subnets with 2 hosts each (one left over).
• /30 subnets with 2 hosts per subnet do not waste host addresses on
serial networks .
Rick Graziani [email protected] 37
 VLSM and the Routing Table (more later)
Displays one subnet mask for all child routes.
Classful mask is assumed for the parent route.
Routing Table without VLSM
RouterX#show ip route
207.21.24.0/27 is subnetted, 4 subnets
C 207.21.24.192 is directly connected, Serial0 
C 207.21.24.196 is directly connected, Serial1
C 207.21.24.200 is directly connected, Serial2
C 207.21.24.204 is directly connected, FastEthernet0
Each child routes displays its own subnet mask.
Routing Table with VLSM Classful mask is included for the parent route.
RouterX#show ip route
207.21.24.0/24 is variably subnetted, 4 subnets, 2 masks
C 207.21.24.192 /30 is directly connected, Serial0 
C 207.21.24.196 /30 is directly connected, Serial1
C 207.21.24.200 /30 is directly connected, Serial2
C 207.21.24.96 /27 is directly connected, FastEthernet0

• Parent Route shows classful mask instead of subnet mask of the child
routes.
• Each Child Routes includes its subnet mask.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 38

Final Notes on VLSM

• Whenever possible it is best to group contiguous routes

together so they can be summarized (aggregated) by
upstream routers. (coming soon!)
– Even if not all of the contiguous routes are
together, routing tables use the longest-bit
match which allows the router to choose the
more specific route over a summarized route.
– Coming soon!
• You can keep on sub-subnetting as many times and as
“deep” as you want to go.
• You can have various sizes of subnets with VLSM.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 39

Route flapping

• Route flapping occurs when a router interface alternates rapidly between the up and
down states.
• Route flapping, and it can cripple a router with excessive updates and recalculations.
• However, the summarization configuration prevents the RTC route flapping from
affecting any other routers.
• The loss of one network does not invalidate the route to the supernet.
• While RTC may be kept busy dealing with its own route flap, RTZ, and all upstream
routers, are unaware of any downstream problem.
• Summarization effectively insulates the other routers from the problem of route
flapping.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 40
Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517,

1518, 1519, 1520
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009
• Private Addressing - RFC 1918
• NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address
Translation) – RFC

Rick Graziani [email protected] 41

Private IP addresses (RFC 1918)

If addressing any of the following, these private addresses can be used instead of globally unique addresses:
• A non-public intranet
• A test lab
• A home network
Global addresses must be obtained from a provider or a registry at some expense.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 42

Discontiguous subnets

• “Mixing private addresses with globally unique addresses can create

discontiguous subnets.” – Not the main cause however…
• Discontiguous subnets, are subnets from the same major network that
are separated by a completely different major network or subnet.
• Question: If a classful routing protocol like RIPv1 or IGRP is being used, what
do the routing updates look like between Site A router and Site B router?

Rick Graziani [email protected] 43

Discontiguous subnets

• Classful routing protocols, notably RIPv1 and IGRP, can’t support

discontiguous subnets, because the subnet mask is not included in routing
updates.
• RIPv1 and IGRP automatically summarize on classful boundaries.
• Site A and Site B are all sending each other the classful address of
207.21.24.0/24.
• A classless routing protocol (RIPv2, EIGRP, OSPF) would be needed:
– to not summarize the classful network address and
– to include the subnet mask in the routing updates.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 44
Discontiguous subnets

• RIPv2 and EIGRP automatically summarize on classful boundaries.

• When using RIPv2 and EIGRP, to disable automatic summarization (on both
routers):
Router(config-router)#no auto-summary

• SiteB now receives 207.21.24.0/27

• SiteB now receives 207.21.24.32/27

Rick Graziani [email protected] 45

Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517,

1518, 1519, 1520
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009
• Private Addressing - RFC 1918
• NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address
Translation) – RFC

Rick Graziani [email protected] 46

Network Address Translation (NAT)

NAT: Network Address Translatation

• NAT, as defined by RFC 1631, is the process of swapping one
address for another in the IP packet header.
• In practice, NAT is used to allow hosts that are privately addressed to
access the Internet.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 47

Network Address Translation (NAT)

TCP Source Port 1026 2.2.2.2 TCP Source Port 1923

TCP Source Port 1026 2.2.2.2 TCP Source Port 1924

• NAT translations can occur dynamically or statically.

• The most powerful feature of NAT routers is their capability to use port address
translation (PAT), which allows multiple inside addresses to map to the same global
address.
• This is sometimes called a many-to-one NAT.
• With PAT, or address overloading, literally hundreds of privately addressed nodes can
access the Internet using only one global address.
• The NAT router keeps track of the different conversations by mapping TCP and UDP port
numbers.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 48
Using IP unnumbered

There are certain drawbacks that come with using IP unnumbered:

• The use of ping cannot determine whether the interface is up because the interface has no IP
address.
• A network IOS image cannot boot over an unnumbered serial interface.
• IP security options cannot be supported on an unnumbered interface. 
Rick Graziani [email protected] 49
DHCP

• DHCP overview
• DHCP operation
• Configuring IOS DHCP server
• Easy IP

Rick Graziani [email protected] 50

DHCP overview

• Administrators set up DHCP servers to assign addresses from

predefined pools. DHCP servers can also offer other information:
– DNS server addresses
– WINS server addresses
– Domain names
• Most DHCP servers also allow the ability to define specifically what
client MAC addresses can be serviced and to automatically assign the
same number to a particular host each time.
• Note: BootP was originally defined in RFC 951 in 1985. It is the
predecessor of DHCP, and it shares some operational characteristics.
Both protocols use UDP ports 67 and 68, which are well known as
BootP ports because BootP came before DHCP.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 51
DHCP operation

• The client sends a DHCPREQUEST broadcast to all nodes.

• If the client finds the offer agreeable, it will send another broadcast.
• This broadcast is a DHCPREQUEST, specifically requesting those particular IP
parameters.
• Why does the client broadcast the request instead of unicasting it to the server?
• A broadcast is used because the very first message, the DHCPDISCOVER, may
have reached more than one DHCP server.
• After all, it was a broadcast. If more than one server makes an offer, the
broadcasted DHCPREQUEST lets the servers know which offer was accepted,
which is usually the first offer received.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 52

Configuring IOS DHCP server

Basic

More
options…

• Note: The network statement enables DHCP on any router

interfaces belonging to that network.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 53

Configuring IOS DHCP server

Rick Graziani [email protected] 54

Easy IP

Rick Graziani [email protected] 55

Using helper addresses

Rick Graziani [email protected] 56

Configuring IP helper addresses

By default, the ip helper-address command forwards the eight UDPs services.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 57

 Configuring IP helper addresses

Broadcast Unicast
To configure RTA e0, the interface that receives the Host A broadcasts, to
relay DHCP broadcasts as a unicast to the DHCP server, use the
following commands:
RTA(config)#interface e0
RTA(config-if)#ip helper-address 172.24.1.9
Rick Graziani [email protected] 58
 Configuring IP helper addresses

Broadcast Unicast
Helper address configuration that relays broadcasts to all servers on the
segment.
RTA(config)#interface e0
RTA(config-if)#ip helper-address 172.24.1.255
But will RTA forward the broadcast?
Rick Graziani [email protected] 59
Directed Broadcast

• Notice that the RTA interface e3, which connects to the server farm, is not
configured with helper addresses.
• However, the output shows that for this interface, directed broadcast
forwarding is disabled.
• This means that the router will not convert the logical broadcast 172.24.1.255
into a physical broadcast with a Layer 2 address of FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.
• To allow all the nodes in the server farm to receive the broadcasts at Layer 2,
e3 will need to be configured to forward directed broadcasts with the following
command:
RTA(config)#interface e3
RTA(config-if)#ip
Rick Graziani [email protected]
directed-broadcast 60
 Configuring IP helper addresses

L3 Broadcast L2 Broadcast

Helper address configuration that relays broadcasts to all servers on the

segment.
RTA(config)#interface e0
RTA(config-if)#ip helper-address 172.24.1.255
RTA(config)#interface e3
RTA(config-if)#ip directed-broadcast
Rick Graziani [email protected] 61
IP address issues solutions
This module has shown that IPv4 addressing faces two major issues:
• The depletion of addresses, particularly the key medium-sized space
• The pervasive growth of Internet routing tables

In 1994, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) proposed IPv6 in RFC 1752
and a number of working groups were formed in response. IPv6 covers issues
such as the following:
• Address depletion
• Quality of service
• Address autoconfiguration
• Authentication
• Security

It will not be easy for organizations deeply invested in the IPv4 scheme to migrate
to a totally new architecture. As long as IPv4, with its recent extensions and
CIDR enabled hierarchy, remains viable, administrators will shy away from
adopting IPv6. A new IP protocol requires new software, new hardware, and
new methods of administration. It is likely that IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist, even
within an autonomous system, for years to come. 
Rick Graziani [email protected] 62
IPv6

Three general types of addresses exist:

• Unicast – An identifier for a single interface. A packet sent to a unicast address is
delivered to the interface identified by that address.
• Anycast – An identifier for a set of interfaces that typically belong to different
nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to the nearest, or first,
interface in the anycast group.
• Multicast – An identifier for a set of interfaces that typically belong to different
nodes. A packet sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces in the
multicast group.
Rick Graziani [email protected] 63
IPv6

• To write 128-bit addresses so that they are readable to human eyes,

the IPv6 architects abandoned dotted decimal notation in favor of a
hexadecimal format.
• Therefore, IPv6 is written as 32 hex digits, with colons separating the
values of the eight 16-bit pieces of the address.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 64

IPv6

• IP v6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit address

space, yielding
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
possible addresses.

Rick Graziani [email protected] 65

Summary

This module described how all of the following could enable

more efficient use of IP addresses:
• Subnet masks
• VLSMs
• Private addressing
• Network address translation (NAT)

Rick Graziani [email protected] 66