Chapter 2

Nerve Cells and Nerve

Impulses
 The Cells of the Nervous System

The human nervous system is comprised of

two kinds of cells:
Neurons
Glia
The human brain contains approximately
100 billion individual neurons.
Behavior depends upon the communication
between neurons.
Fig. 2-1, p. 30
Fig. 2-4, p. 32
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Spaniard Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-

1934) was the first to demonstrate that the
individual cells comprising the nervous
system remained separate.
He showed that they did not grow into each
other as previously believed.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Like other cells in the body, neurons contain

the following structures:
Membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Fig. 2-2, p. 31
 The Cells of the Nervous System

The membrane refers to the structure that

separates the inside of the cell from the
outside environment.
The nucleus refers to the structure that
contains the chromosomes.
The mitochondria are the strucures that
perform metabolic activities and provides
energy that the cells requires.
Ribosomes are the sites at which the cell
synthesizes new protein molecules
Fig. 2-3, p. 32
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Neuron cells are similar to other cells of the

body but have a distinctive shape.
A motor neuron has its soma in the spinal
cord and receives excitation from other
neurons and conducts impulses along it axon
to a muscle.
A sensory neuron is specialized at one end to
be highly sensitive to a particular type of
stimulation (touch, temperature, odor etc.)
Fig. 2-5, p. 32
Fig. 2-6, p. 33
 The Cells of the Nervous System

All neurons have the following major

components:
Dendrites.
Soma/ cell body.
Axon.
Presynaptic terminals.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Dendrites- branching fibers with a surface

lined with synaptic receptors responsible for
bringing in information from other neurons.
Some dendrites also contain dendritic spines
that further branch out and increase the
surface area of the dendrite.
Fig. 2-7, p. 33
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Soma - contains the nucleus, mitochondria,

ribosomes, and other structures found in
other cells.
Also responsible for the metabolic work of
the neuron.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Axon - thin fiber of a neuron responsible for

transmitting nerve impulses away to other
neurons, glands, or muscles.
Some neurons are covered with an insulating
material called the myelin sheath with
interruptions in the sheath known as nodes of
Ranvier.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Presynaptic terminals refer to the end points

of an axon responsible for releasing
chemicals to communicate with other
neurons.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Terms used to describe the neuron include

the following:
Afferent axon - refers to bringing
information into a structure.
Efferent axon - refers to carrying
information away from a structure.
Interneurons or Intrinsic neurons are those
whose dendrites and axons are completely
contained within a structure.
Fig. 2-8, p. 34
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons vary in size, shape, and function.

The shape of a neuron determines it
connection with other neurons and its
connections with other neurons.
The function is closely related to the shape of
a neuron.
Example: Pukinje cells of the cerebellum
branch extremely widely within a single
plane
Fig. 2-9, p. 34
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Glia are the other major component of the

nervous system and include the following:
Astrocytes helps synchronize the activity of
the axon by wrapping around the
presynaptic terminal and taking up
chemicals released by the axon.
Microglia - remove waste material and
other microorganisms that could prove
harmful to the neuron.
Fig. 2-10, p. 35
Fig. 2-11, p. 36
 The Cells of the Nervous System

(Types of glia continued)

Oligdendrocytes & Schwann cells- build
the myelin sheath that surrounds the axon
of some neurons.
Radial glia- guide the migration of neurons
and the growth of their axons and
dendrites during embryonic development.
 The Cells of the Nervous System

The blood-brain barrier is a mechanism that

surrounds the brain and blocks most
chemicals from entering.
Our immune system destroys damaged or
infected cells throughout the body.
Because neurons in the brain generally do
not regenerate, it is vitally important for the
blood brain barrier to block incoming viruses,
bacteria or other harmful material from
entering.
Fig. 2-12, p. 37
 The Cells of the Nervous System

Active transport is the protein mediated

process by which useful chemicals are
brought into the brain.
Glucose, hormones, amino acids, and
vitamins are brought into the brain via active
transport.
Glucose is a simple sugar that is the primary
source of nutrition for neurons.
Thiamine is a chemical that is necessary
for the use of glucose.
 The Nerve Impulse

A nerve impulse is the electrical message that

is transmitted down the axon of a neuron.
The impulse does not travel directly down the
axon but is regenerated at points along the
axon.
The speed of nerve impulses ranges from
approximately 1 m/s to 100 m/s.
 The Nerve Impulse

The resting potential of a neuron refers to the

state of the neuron prior to the sending of a
nerve impulse.
The membrane of a neuron maintains an
electrical gradient which is a difference in the
electrical charge inside and outside of the
cell.
Fig. 2-13, p. 40
 The Nerve Impulse

At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical

polarization or a difference in the electrical
charge of two locations.
the inside of the membrane is slightly
negative with respect to the outside.
(approximately -70 millivolts)
 The Nerve Impulse

The membrane is selectively permeable,

allowing some chemicals to pass more freely
than others.
Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride
pass through channels in the membrane.
When the membrane is at rest:
Sodium channels are closed.
Potassium channels are partially closed
allowing the slow passage of sodium.
Fig. 2-14, p. 40
 The Nerve Impulse

The sodium-potassium pump is a protein

complex that continually pumps three sodium
ions out of the cells while drawing two
potassium ions into the cell.
helps to maintain the electrical gradient.
The electrical gradient and the concentration
gradient work to pull sodium ions into the cell.
The electrical gradient tends to pull
potassium ions into the cells.
Fig. 2-15, p. 41
 The Nerve Impulse

The resting potential remains stable until the

neuron is stimulated.
Hyperpolarization refers to increasing the
polarization or the difference between the
electrical charge of two places.
Depolarization refers to decreasing the
polarization towards zero.
The threshold of excitement refers any
stimulation beyond a certain level and results
in a massive depolarization.
 The Nerve Impulse

An action potential is a rapid depolarization of

the neuron.
Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold
of excitation triggers a nerve impulse or
action potential.
 The Nerve Impulse

Voltage-activated channels are membrane

channels whose permeabililty depends upon
the voltage difference across the membrane.
Sodium channels are voltage activated
channels.
When sodium channels are opened,
positively charged sodium ions rush in and a
subsequent nerve impulse occurs.
Fig. 2-16, p. 43
 The Nerve Impulse

After an action potential occurs, sodium

channels are quickly closed.
The neuron is returned to its resting state by
the opening of potassium channels.
potassium ions flow out due to the
concentration gradient and take with them
their positive charge.
The sodium-potassium pump later restores
the original distribution of ions.
 The Nerve Impulse

Local anesthetic drugs block sodium

channels and therefore prevent action
potentials from occurring.
Example: Novocain
 The Nerve Impulse

The all-or-none law states that the amplitude

and velocity of an action potential are
independent of the intensity of the stimulus
that initiated it.
Action potentials are equal in intensity and
speed within a given neuron.
 The Nerve Impulse

After an action potential, a neuron has a

refractory period during which time the
neuron resists another action potential.
The absolute refractory period is the first part
of the period in which the membrane can not
produce an action potential.
The relative refractory period is the second
part in which it take a stronger than usual
stimulus to trigger an action potential.
 The Nerve Impulse

In a motor neuron, the action potential begins

at the axon hillock (a swelling where the axon
exits the soma).
Propagation of the action potential is the term
used to describe the transmission of the
action potential down the axon.
the action potential does not directly travel
down the axon.
Fig. 2-17, p. 45
 The Nerve Impulse

The myelin sheath of axons are interrupted

by short unmyelinated sections called nodes
of Ranvier.
At each node of Ranvier, the action potential
is regenerated by a chain of positively
charged ion pushed along by the previous
segment.
Fig. 2-18, p. 46
 The Nerve Impulse

Saltatory conduction is the word used to

describe this jumping of the action potential
from node to node.
Provides rapid conduction of impulses
Conserves energy for the cell
Multiple sclerosis is disease in which the
myelin sheath is destroyed and associated
with poor muscle coordination.
Fig. 2-19, p. 46
 The Nerve Impulse

Not all neurons have lengthy axons.

Local neurons have short axons, exchange
information with only close neighbors, and do
not produce action potentials.
When stimulated, local neurons produce
graded potentials which are membrane
potentials that vary in magnitude and do not
follow the all-or-none law,.
A local neuron depolarizes or hyperpolarizes
in proportion to the stimulation.