FUNDAMENTALS OF

NOISE
Prof. D. B. Zoman
Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Late G. N. Sapkal College of Engineering
Sound is a disturbance that propagates through a
medium having properties of inertia (mass) and
elasticity. It is created by vibrating object or body.
The medium by which the audible waves are transmitted
is air.
Sound Longitudinal Waves
Wave motion
Mechanism of transfer of energy and
momentum
Sound cannot pass through vacuum.
8e-3nm to
0.1mm
Guess how much is
particle displacement??
Frequency:
Number of pressure cycles/time
also called pitch of sound (in Hz)
Sound is a sensation of acoustic waves
(disturbance/pressure fluctuations setup in a medium)

Unpleasant, unwanted, disturbing sound is

generally treated as Noise and is a highly subjective
feeling.
The disturbance gradually diminishes as it travels outwards
since the initial amount of energy is gradually spreading over a
wider area.
If the disturbance is confined to one dimension (tube/thin rod),
it does not diminish as it travels (except loses at the walls of
the tube)
 Velocity of Sound
The rate at which the disturbance (sound wave) travels.
Property of the medium

P0 RT
c Alternatively, c
0 M Material C
Air 344
c Speed of sound P0, 0 - Pressure and Density
Water 1372
- Ratio of specific heats R Universal Gas Constant
concrete 3048
T Temperature in 0K M Molecular weight
Glass 3658
Iron 5182
c 25 343.5 m / s
1
T 2 Lead 1219
c c0 1 c
273 c 40 355 m / s Wood 4267
(Hard)

Speed of Light: 299,792,458 m/s Speed of sound 344 m/s

 Sound Measurement
(Quantification of Sound)

Provides definite quantities that describe and rate sound

Permit precise, scientific analysis of annoying sound

(objective means for comparison)

Help estimate damage to Hearing

Powerful diagnostic tool for noise reduction program:

Factories, Airports, Homes, Recording studios,
Highways, etc.
 Quantifying Sound
Acoustic Variables: Pressure and Particle Velocity

Root Mean Square Value (RMS) of Sound Pressure

Mean energy associated with sound waves

is its fundamental feature.
Energy is proportional to square of amplitude.

1
1 T 2
p [ p(t )] dt
2
p 0.707a
T 0
 RANGE OF PRESSURE
Range of RMS pressure fluctuations that a human ear can
detect extends from
0.00002 N/m2 (threshold of hearing)
to
200 N/m2 (sensation of pain) 10000000 times larger

Atmospheric pressure is 105 N/m2 so the peak pressure

associated with loudest sound is 500 times smaller than
atmospheric pressure.

The large range of associated pressure is one of the

reasons we need alternate scale.
 dB SCALE
Human ear responds logarithmically to power difference.
Alexander Graham Bell invented a unit Bel to measure the
ability of people to hear
Power Ratio of 2 = dB of 3 (approximately)
Power Ratio of 10 = dB of 10
Power Ratio of 100 = dB of 20

In acoustics, multiplication by a given factor is

encountered most W1 = W2 * n
So, Log10W1= Log10W2 + Log10n

Thus, if the two powers differ by a factor of 10 (n = 10),

the difference between the Log values of two power
quantities is 1 Bel.
 Decibel
10 Log10W1 = 10 Log10W2 + 10 Log10 n to avoid fractions
Now we have above quantities in deciBel, 10 dB = 1 Bel
deciBels are thus another way of expressing ratios

Electrical V2 Sound P2
W W r - acoustic
impedance
Power R Power r

20 Log10 V1= 20 Log10 V2 + 20 Log10 n(1/2)

20 Log10 P1= 20 Log10 P2 + 20 Log10 n(1/2)

 Decibel
Mathematically,

the decibel is 10 times the logarithm to the base 10 of

the quantity measured to an arbitrary chosen
reference quantity.
 Sound Pressure Level

20 Log10 P1= 20 Log10 P2 + 20 Log10 n (1/2)

20 Log10 (P1/P2) = 20 Log10 n (1/2) n: Ratio of sound powers

20 Log10 n (1/2) is still in deciBel, defined as Sound

Pressure Level
Sound pressure level is always relative to a reference
In acoustics, the reference pressure P2 = 2*10-5 N/m2 or
20Pa (RMS)
SPL = 20 Log10 (P1/2*10-5) P1 is RMS pressure
 Sound Pressure Level

Corresponding to audio range of Sound Pressure

2*10-5 N/m2 - 0 dB
20 N/m2 - 120 dB
Normal SPL encountered are between 35 dB to 90 dB

For underwater acoustics different reference pressure is

used
Pref = 0.1 N/m2

It is customary to specify SPL as 52dB re 20Pa

 Sound Power

W
Sound Power Level: SWL 10log10 dB
Wref

Reference Power Wref =10-12 Watt

Peak Power output:

Female Voice 0.002 W, Male Voice 0.004 W,
A Soft whisper 10-9 W, An average shout 0.001 W Large
Orchestra 10-70 W, Large Jet at Takeoff 100,000 W

15,000,000 speakers speaking simultaneously generate 1HP

 Relationship between sound power level and sound
pressure level with sound intensity

Intensity : Average Rate of energy transfer per unit area

Intensity :
Average sound power W passing
through an area S of 1 m2
perpendicular to the given
direction at that point.

W
I W/m 2

4 r 2
2
p
W 4 r 2 I 4 r 2 Watt
0 c
 Sound Intensity
A plane progressive sound wave traveling in a medium
(say along a tube) contains energy and
rate of transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area is
defined as Sound Intensity
T Hold true also for spherical
1 P2
I p u dt I waves far away from
T 0 0 c source

p1 p12 /( 0c)
SPL 20Log10 dB 10Log10 dB
2e 5 (2e 5) /( 0c)
2

I 1012 I 1012
SPL 10 Log10 12 dB 10 Log10 10 Log10
10 (2e 5) /( 0c)
2
I ref (2e 5) 2 /( 0c)
I
IL 10Log10 Iref = 10-12 W/m2
I ref

For air, 0c 415Ns/m3 so that SPL IL 0.16 dB

COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SOURCES
Total Intensity produced by several sources
IT = I1+ I2+ I3+
Usually, intensity levels are known (L1, L2,)

IT I1
LT 10 Log 12 L1 10 Log 12
10 10

10L1 L2
10
L3

LT 10 Log 10 10 10 ...
10

 COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES
If intensity levels of each of the N sources is same,
10
L1

LT 10 Log N 10 LT 10LogN L1

Thus for 2 identical sources, total Intensity Level is
10Log2 i.e., 3dB greater than the level of the single
source
For 2 sources of different intensities: L1 and L2

L1=60dB,
L2=65.5dB
LT=66.5dB
L1=80dB, L2=82dB
LT=84dB
 FREQUENCY & FREQUENCY BANDS

Frequency of sound ---- as important as its level

Sensitivity of ear
Sound insulation of a wall
Attenuation of silencer all vary with freq.

< 20 Hz 20 Hz to 20000 Hz > 20000 Hz

Infrasonic Audio Range Ultrasonic
 Frequency Composition of Sound
Pure tone

Musical
Instrument

For multiple frequency composition sound, frequency

spectrum is obtained through Fourier analysis
 Complex Noise Pattern
produced by exhaust of Jet Engine, water at base of
Niagara Falls, hiss of air/steam jets, etc
Amplitude (dB)

A
1

f1 Frequency (Hz)

No discrete tones, infinite frequencies

Better to group them in frequency bands total strength
in each band gives measure of sound
Octave Bands commonly used
(Octave: Halving / doubling)
Measurements made in semi-reverberant and free field
conditions are in error of 2dB
 I=0
Uniform
sound
energy
density
Free Field Diffuse Field
Condition
MWL Lab, KTH Sweden

Finding sound power (ISO 3745)

Sound Reflection, Absorption and Transmission
 Radiation from Source
Point Source (Monopole)
2
p
W 4 r 2 I 4 r 2 Watt
0 c
Radiates sound waves equally in all directions (spherical radiation)
W: is acoustic power output of the source;
power must be distributed equally over spherical surface area

W 1 W 1
IL 10log10 2
10log
4 r I ref 4 1012 r 2
10

W
IL 10log10 20log10 r
4 10 12

Constant Depends on
Inverse Square Law
term distance from
source
When distance doubles (r=2r0) ; 20log 2 + 20log r0 means 6dB difference in the Sound
Intensity Level
If the point source is placed on ground,
it radiates over a hemisphere,
the intensity is then doubled and

W 1
IL 10log10 2
2 r I ref
W
IL 10log10 20log10 r
2 10 12
 Line Source
(Long trains, steady stream of traffic, long straight run of
pipeline)
If the source is located on ground,
and has acoustic power output of
W per unit length
radiating over half the cylinder
W
Intensity at radius r, I
r
W
IL 10log10 10log10 r
10 12

When distance doubles; 10log 2 + 10log r means 3dB difference in the Sound Intensity
Level
 EFFECT OF HARD REFLECTING GROUND
Radiated Sound Power of the source can be affected by
a rigid, reflecting planes.
Strength and vibrational velocity of the source does not
change but the hard reflecting plane produces double
the pressure and four-fold increase in sound intensity
compared to monopole (point spherical source)
If source is sufficiently above the ground this effect is
reduced.
The Human Ear
 The
Human
Ear

Outer Ear: Pinna and auditory canal concentrate pressure on to drum

Middle Ear: Eardrum, Small Bones connecting eardrum to inner ear
Inner Ear: Filled with liquid, cochlea with basilar membrane respond to stimulus
of eardrum with the help of thousands of tiny, highly sensitive hair cells, different
portions responding different frequencies of sound.
The movement of hair cells is conveyed as sensation of sound to the brain through
nerve impulses
Masking takes place at the membrane; Higher frequencies are masked by lower
ones, degree depends on frequency difference and relative magnitudes of the two
sounds
Schematic Model of Middle Ear and Inner Ear with Cochlea

Sound waves travelling along

basilar membrane
 SOUND BITS

Unless there is a 3 dB difference in SPL, human beings

can not distinguish the difference in the sound
Sound is perceived as doubled in its loudness when
there is 10dB difference in the SPL.
(Remember 6dB change represents doubling of sound pressure!!)

Ear is not equally sensitive at all frequencies:

highly sensitive at frequencies between 2kHz to 5kHz
less at other freq.
This sensitivity dependence on frequency is also
dependent on SPL!!!!
 RESPONSE OF HUMAN EAR Loudness Level
(Phon)
Equal to
numerical value of
SPL at 1000Hz
0Phon: threshold
of hearing

Loudness Level
(Phon) useful for
comparing two
different
frequencies for
equal loudness
But, 60Phon is
still not twice as
loud as 30Phon
Doubling of
loudness
corresponds to
Equal Loudness Contours for pure tones, increase of 10Phon
Free Field conditions
 Weighting Characteristics

A-weighting: 40Phon equal loudness level contour

C-weighting: 90Phon equal loudness level contour
D-weighting for Aircraft Noise
BASIC SOUND LEVEL METER
LOUDNESS INDEX

Direct relationship between

Loudness Level P (Phons)
and Loudness Index S
(Sones)
P 40
S 2 10

8 Sones is twice as loud

as 4 Sones
 Hearing Damage Potential to sound energy
depends on its level & duration of exposure

Equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq)

tj : Fraction of total time

duration for which SPL
N Lj

10
of Lj was measured
Leq 10 Log10 t j 10 dB
j 1 Total time interval
considered is divided in
N parts
with each part has
constant SPL of Lj
1 100 7 70

Leq 10Log10 10 10 91dB
10 10

8 8
Integrating Sound Level Meter for randomly varying
sound
e.g., 60sec Leq
Sound Exposure Level
(SEL)
Constant level acting for
1sec that has the same
acoustic energy as the
original sound
Vehicle passing by;
Aircraft flying over
Noise Dose Meters display
Noise Exposure
Measurements

Regulations:
Basis of 90dB(A) for 8hr a
day.
ISO(1999): Increase in SPL
from 90 to 93dB(A) must
reduce time of exposure
from 8 to 4 hours
OSHA: with every 5dB(A)
increase, reduce exposure by
half
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Noise Rating Curves (ISO R 1996)

Level of
Noise
Annoyance

NR78
Errors of the order of 6dB around 400Hz due to reflections
Sources:
Vibration and Noise for Engineers, K Pujara
Fundamentals of Acoustics, Kinsler and Frey
Fundamentals of Noise and Vibration Analysis for
Engineers, M Norton and D Karczub
Introduction to Acoustics, R D Ford
Measuring Sound, B&K Application Notes
Sound Intensity, B&K Application Notes
Basic Concepts of Sound, B&K Application Notes
TRANSFORMER NOISE CASE STUDY
 SOURCES
The primary source of acoustic noise generation in a transformer is
the periodic mechanical deformation of the transformer core under
the influence of fluctuating electromagnetic flux associated with
these parts. The physical phenomena associated with this tonal
noise generation can be classified as follows:

core laminations strike against

vibration of the core each other due to residual gaps
between laminations
 The material of a transformer core exhibits
magnetostrictive properties. The vibration of the core is
due to its magnetostrictive strain varying at twice the
frequency of the alternating magnetic flux. The
frequencies of the magnetic flux are equal to the power
system supply frequency and its harmonics.

When there are residual gaps between laminations of

the core, the periodic magneto-motive force may cause
the core laminations to strike against each other and
produce noise. Also, the periodic mutual forces between
the current-carrying coil windings can induce
vibrations.
A core structure is a complicated stack of Si-Fe alloy laminations
clamped together at suitable points. Clamping is essential to hold
together the laminations. The clamping arrangement also influences the
dynamic behaviour of a core.

As laminations do not have good matching flat surfaces and as they are
not clamped together over an entire surface area, hence residual gaps
between the laminations are unavoidable. Magneto-motive forces acting
across these air gaps could set relative transverse motions between the
laminations also with clamped constraint points in place.

Higher the core loss (eddy current loss, hysterisis, copper loss) greater
the noise level.

Noise level increases

with increasing overlap
length.

Figure: Core overlap region

 METHODS
By changing the conventional grain-oriented (grade M4) material of core
with any of high-permeability (Grade MOH) and laser-scribed (grade
ZDKH)
material can reduce noise 2-4db because higher-grade materials have
lower magnetostriction.

A method of controlling noise is to construct a wall with high sound

absorbing bricks.

The most effective way to reduce noise is varnishing or using adhesive

material inside transformer tank (Viscoelastic materials)
Enclosing transformer inside an enclosure which uses two thin plates separated
by viscous material.

The noise hits inner plate and energy is damped out by viscous material so
that outer one does not vibrate.
This may change an efficiently radiating
vibration shape into an ineffectively
radiating shape resulting in a lower sound
radiation ratio.
Active noise control (ANC):
Decentralized ANC can be implemented. In this transformer tank surface is
divided into number of elements. For each element unit consist of micro
phone located in front of loud speaker delivers error signal, this signal is fed
to controller which drives loud speaker is attached. An experimentation of
decentralized active noise control on power transformer is shown in figure 5
and Configuration of the control simulation is shown in figure 6.

Figure 5: experimentation of decentralized active

noise control on power transformer
Figure6: Configuration of the control simulation.
Thanks !!