Module 6: Process Synchronization

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Module 6: Process Synchronization

Background
The Critical-Section Problem
Petersons Solution
Synchronization Hardware
Semaphores
Classic Problems of Synchronization
Monitors
Synchronization Examples
Atomic Transactions

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Objectives

To introduce the critical-section problem, whose solutions can be used

to ensure the consistency of shared data

To present both software and hardware solutions of the critical-section

problem

To introduce the concept of an atomic transaction and describe

mechanisms to ensure atomicity

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Background

Concurrent access to shared data may result in data inconsistency

Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the

orderly execution of cooperating processes

Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the consumer-

producer problem that fills all the buffers. We can do so by having an
integer count that keeps track of the number of full buffers. Initially,
count is set to 0. It is incremented by the producer after it produces a
new buffer and is decremented by the consumer after it consumes a
buffer.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Producer

while (count == BUFFER.SIZE)

; // do nothing

// add an item to the buffer

buffer[in] = item;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER.SIZE;
++count;

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Consumer

while (count == 0)
; // do nothing

// remove an item from the

buffer item = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER.SIZE;
--count;

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Race Condition

count++ could be implemented as

register1 = count
register1 = register1 + 1
count = register1
count-- could be implemented as

register2 = count
register2 = register2 - 1
count = register2
Consider this execution interleaving with count = 5 initially:
T0: producer execute register1 = count {register1 = 5}
T1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
T2: consumer execute register2 = count {register2 = 5}
T3: consumer execute register2 = register2 - 1 {register2 = 4}
T4: producer execute count = register1 {count = 6 }
T5: consumer execute count = register2 {count = 4}

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution to Critical-Section Problem

1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then

no other processes can be executing in their critical sections.

2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there

exist some processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the
selection of the processes that will enter the critical section next
cannot be postponed indefinitely.

3. Bounded Waiting - A bound must exist on the number of times that

other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a
process has made a request to enter its critical section and before
that request is granted.
Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed
No assumption concerning relative speed of the N processes

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Structure of a Typical Process

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Petersons Solution
Two process solution

Assume that the LOAD and STORE instructions are atomic; that is,
cannot be interrupted.

The two processes share two variables:

int turn;
boolean flag[2]

The variable turn indicates whose turn it is to enter the critical section.

The flag array is used to indicate if a process is ready to enter the critical
section. flag[i] = true implies that process Pi is ready!

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Algorithm for Process Pi

while (true) {
flag[i] = true;
turn = j;
while (flag[j] && turn == j);
critical section
flag[i] = false;
remainder section
}

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution to Critical-Section Problem
Using Locks

while (true) {
acquire lock
critical section
release lock
remainder section
}

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Synchronization Hardware
Many systems provide hardware support for critical section code

Uniprocessors could disable interrupts

Currently running code would execute without preemption
Generally too inefficient on multiprocessor systems
Operating systems using this not broadly scalable

Modern machines provide special atomic hardware instructions

Atomic = non-interruptable

Either test memory word and set value
Or swap contents of two memory words

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Data Structure for Hardware Solutions

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution using GetAndSet Instruction

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution using Swap Instruction

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Semaphore
Synchronization tool that does not require busy waiting

Semaphore S integer variable

Two standard operations modify S: acquire() and release()

Originally called P() and V()
Less complicated

Can only be accessed via two indivisible (atomic) operations

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Semaphore as General Synchronization Tool

Counting semaphore integer value can range over an unrestricted

domain

Binary semaphore integer value can range only between 0

and 1; can be simpler to implement
Also known as mutex locks

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Example Using Semaphores

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Example Using Semaphores

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Semaphore Implementation

Must guarantee that no two processes can execute acquire ()

and release () on the same semaphore at the same time

Thus, implementation becomes the critical section problem

where the wait and signal code are placed in the critical section.
Could now have busy waiting in critical section
implementation
But implementation code is short
Little busy waiting if critical section rarely occupied

Note that applications may spend lots of time in critical sections

and therefore this is not a good solution.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Semaphore Implementation with
no Busy waiting

With each semaphore there is an associated waiting queue.

Each entry in a waiting queue has two data items:
value (of type integer)
pointer to next record in the list

Two operations:
block place the process invoking the operation on the
appropriate waiting queue.
wakeup remove one of processes in the waiting queue and
place it in the ready queue.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Semaphore Implementation with
no Busy waiting (Cont.)

Implementation of acquire():

Implementation of release():

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Deadlock and Starvation
Deadlock two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event
that can be caused by only one of the waiting processes

Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1

Starvation indefinite blocking. A process may never be removed

from the semaphore queue in which it is suspended.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Classical Problems of Synchronization
Bounded-Buffer Problem

Readers and Writers Problem

Dining-Philosophers Problem

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-Buffer Problem

N buffers, each can hold one item

Semaphore mutex initialized to the value 1

Semaphore full initialized to the value 0

Semaphore empty initialized to the value N

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-Buffer Problem

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-Buffer insert()

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-buffer remove()

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-buffer producer

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-buffer consumer

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Bounded-buffer factory

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem

A data set is shared among a number of concurrent processes

Readers only read the data set; they do not perform any
updates
Writers can both read and write

Problem allow multiple readers to read at the same time. Only one
single writer can access the shared data at the same time

Shared Data
Data set
Semaphore mutex initialized to 1
Semaphore db initialized to 1
Integer readerCount initialized to 0

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem

Interface for read-write locks

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

The structure of a writer

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

The structure of a reader

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

The database

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

Reader methods

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Readers-Writers Problem (Cont.)

Writer methods

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Dining-Philosophers Problem

Shared data
Bowl of rice (data set)
Semaphore chopStick [5] initialized to 1

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Dining-Philosophers Problem (Cont.)

The structure of Philosopher i:

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Problems with Semaphores

Correct use of semaphore operations:

Correct mutex.acquire() . mutex.release()

Incorrect mutex.acquire () or mutex.release() (or both)

Omitting either mutex.acquire() or mutex.release()

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Monitors

A high-level abstraction that provides a convenient and

effective mechanism for process synchronization

Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Syntax of a Monitor

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Schematic view of a Monitor

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Condition Variables

Condition x, y;

Two operations on a condition variable:

x.wait () a process that invokes the operation is
suspended
x.signal () resumes one of processes (if any) that
invoked x.wait ()

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Monitor with Condition Variables

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution to Dining Philosophers

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solution to Dining Philosophers (Cont.)

Each philosopher I invokes the operations takeForks(i) and

returnForks(i) in the following sequence:

dp.takeForks (i)

EAT

dp.returnForks (i)

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Java provides synchronization at the language-level.

Each Java object has an associated lock.

This lock is acquired by invoking a synchronized method.

This lock is released when exiting the synchronized method.

Threads waiting to acquire the object lock are placed in the entry set
for the object lock.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Each object has an associated entry set.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Synchronized insert() and remove() methods Incorrect!

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization wait/notify()
When a thread invokes wait():

1. The thread releases the object lock;

2. The state of the thread is set to Blocked;
3. The thread is placed in the wait set for the object.

When a thread invokes notify():

1. An arbitrary thread T from the wait set is selected;

2. T is moved from the wait to the entry set;
3. The state of T is set to Runnable.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Entry and wait sets

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization wait/notify

Synchronized insert() method Correct!

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization wait/notify

Synchronized remove() method Correct!

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization - Bounded Buffer

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

The call to notify() selects an aribitrary thread from the wait set. It
is possible the selected thread is in fact not waiting upon the
condition for which it was notified.

The call notifyAll() selects all threads in the wait set and moves
them to the entry set.

In general, notifyAll() is a more conservative strategy than

notify().

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

notify() may
not notify the
correct thread!

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization - Readers-Writers

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization - Readers-Writers

Methods called by readers

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization - Readers-Writers

Methods called by writers

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Rather than synchronizing an entire method, Block

synchronization allows blocks of code to be declared as
synchronized

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Java Synchronization

Block synchronization using wait()/notify()

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrency Features in Java 5

Prior to Java 5, the only concurrency features in Java

were Using synchronized/wait/notify.

Beginning with Java 5, new features were added to the

API:
Reentrant Locks
Semaphores
Condition Variables

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrency Features in Java 5

Reentrant Locks

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrency Features in Java 5

Semaphores

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrency Features in Java 5

A condition variable is created by first creating a

ReentrantLock and invoking its newCondition() method:

Once this is done, it is possible to invoke the

await() and signal() methods

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrency Features in Java 5
doWork() method with condition variables

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Synchronization Examples

Solaris
Windows XP
Linux
Pthreads

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Solaris Synchronization

Implements a variety of locks to support multitasking, multithreading

(including real-time threads), and multiprocessing

Uses adaptive mutexes for efficiency when protecting data from

short code segments

Uses condition variables and readers-writers locks when longer

sections of code need access to data

Uses turnstiles to order the list of threads waiting to acquire either

an adaptive mutex or reader-writer lock

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.71 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Windows XP Synchronization

Uses interrupt masks to protect access to global resources on

uniprocessor systems

Uses spinlocks on multiprocessor systems

Also provides dispatcher objects which may act as either mutexes

and semaphores

Dispatcher objects may also provide events

An event acts much like a condition variable

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.72 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Linux Synchronization

Linux:
Prior to kernel Version 2.6, disables interrupts to implement short
critical sections
Version 2.6 and later, fully preemptive

Linux provides:
semaphores
spin locks

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.73 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Pthreads Synchronization

Pthreads API is OS-independent

It provides:
mutex locks
condition variables

Non-portable extensions include:

read-write locks
spin locks

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.74 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Atomic Transactions

System Model
Log-based Recovery
Checkpoints
Concurrent Atomic Transactions

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.75 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Transactional Memory

Memory transaction is a series of read-write operations that are

atomic.
We replace

With

The atomic{S} statement ensures the statements in S execute as a

transaction.

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.76 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 System Model
Assures that operations happen as a single logical unit of work, in
its entirety, or not at all

Related to field of database systems

Challenge is assuring atomicity despite computer system failures

Transaction - collection of instructions or operations that performs

single logical function
Here we are concerned with changes to stable storage disk
Transaction is series of read and write operations
Terminated by commit (transaction successful) or abort
(transaction failed) operation
Aborted transaction must be rolled back to undo any changes it
performed

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.77 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Types of Storage Media

Volatile storage information stored here does not survive system

crashes
Example: main memory, cache

Nonvolatile storage Information usually survives crashes

Example: disk and tape

Stable storage Information never lost

Not actually possible, so approximated via replication or RAID to
devices with independent failure modes

Goal is to assure transaction atomicity where failures cause loss of

information on volatile storage

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.78 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Log-Based Recovery

Record to stable storage information about all modifications by a

transaction

Most common is write-ahead logging

Log on stable storage, each log record describes single transaction
write operation, including
Transaction name
Data item name
Old value
New value
<Ti starts> written to log when transaction Ti starts
<Ti commits> written when Ti commits

Log entry must reach stable storage before operation on data occurs

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.79 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Log-Based Recovery Algorithm

Using the log, system can handle any volatile memory errors
Undo(Ti) restores value of all data updated by Ti
Redo(Ti) sets values of all data in transaction Ti to new values

Undo(Ti) and redo(Ti) must be idempotent

Multiple executions must have the same result as one execution

If system fails, restore state of all updated data via log

If log contains <Ti starts> without <Ti commits>, undo(Ti)
If log contains <Ti starts> and <Ti commits>, redo(Ti)

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.80 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Checkpoints

Log could become long, and recovery could take long

Checkpoints shorten log and recovery time.

Checkpoint scheme:
1. Output all log records currently in volatile storage to stable storage
2. Output all modified data from volatile to stable storage
3. Output a log record <checkpoint> to the log on stable storage

Now recovery only includes Ti, such that Ti started executing before
the most recent checkpoint, and all transactions after Ti All other
transactions already on stable storage

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.81 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Concurrent Transactions

Must be equivalent to serial execution serializability

Could perform all transactions in critical section

Inefficient, too restrictive

Concurrency-control algorithms provide serializability

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.82 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Serializability

Consider two data items A and B

Consider Transactions T0 and T1

Execute T0, T1 atomically

Execution sequence called schedule

Atomically executed transaction order called serial schedule

For N transactions, there are N! valid serial schedules

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.83 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Schedule 1: T0 then T1

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.84 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Nonserial Schedule

Nonserial schedule allows overlapped execute

Resulting execution not necessarily incorrect

Consider schedule S, operations Oi, Oj

Conflict if access same data item, with at least one write

If Oi, Oj consecutive and operations of different transactions & Oi and

Oj dont conflict
Then S with swapped order Oj Oi equivalent to S

If S can become S via swapping nonconflicting operations

S is conflict serializable

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.85 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Schedule 2: Concurrent Serializable Schedule

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.86 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Locking Protocol

Ensure serializability by associating lock with each data item

Follow locking protocol for access control

Locks
Shared Ti has shared-mode lock (S) on item Q, Ti can read Q
but not write Q
Exclusive Ti has exclusive-mode lock (X) on Q, Ti can read and
write Q

Require every transaction on item Q acquire appropriate lock

If lock already held, new request may have to wait

Similar to readers-writers algorithm

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.87 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Two-phase Locking Protocol

Generally ensures conflict serializability

Each transaction issues lock and unlock requests in two phases

Growing obtaining locks
Shrinking releasing locks

Does not prevent deadlock

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.88 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Timestamp-based Protocols

Select order among transactions in advance timestamp-ordering

Transaction Ti associated with timestamp TS(Ti) before Ti starts

TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) if Ti entered system before Tj
TS can be generated from system clock or as logical counter
incremented at each entry of transaction

Timestamps determine serializability order

If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), system must ensure produced schedule
equivalent to serial schedule where Ti appears before Tj

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.89 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Timestamp-based Protocol Implementation

Data item Q gets two timestamps

W-timestamp(Q) largest timestamp of any transaction that
executed write(Q) successfully
R-timestamp(Q) largest timestamp of successful read(Q)
Updated whenever read(Q) or write(Q) executed

Timestamp-ordering protocol assures any conflicting read and write

executed in timestamp order

Suppose Ti executes read(Q)

If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), Ti needs to read value of Q that was
already overwritten
read operation rejected and Ti rolled back
If TS(Ti) W-timestamp(Q)
read executed, R-timestamp(Q) set to max(R-timestamp(Q),
TS(Ti))

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.90 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Timestamp-ordering Protocol

Suppose Ti executes write(Q)

If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), value Q produced by Ti was needed
previously and Ti assumed it would never be produced
Write operation rejected, Ti rolled back
If TS(Ti) < W-tiimestamp(Q), Ti attempting to write obsolete value
of Q
Write operation rejected and Ti rolled back
Otherwise, write executed

Any rolled back transaction Ti is assigned new timestamp and restarted

Algorithm ensures conflict serializability and freedom from deadlock

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.91 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 Schedule Possible Under Timestamp Protocol

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.92 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
 End of Chapter 6

Operating System Concepts with Java 8th Edition 6.93 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009