Map concept

Map types, Elements

and Scales

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 Cartography
The art and science of the
organization and communication of
geographically related
informationinto maps or charts

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Maps show more than the Earth's surface

the term "map" is often used in

mathematics to convey the notion of
transferring information from one form to
another, just as cartographers transfer
information from the surface of the Earth to
a sheet of paper

the term "map" is used loosely to refer to

any visual display of information,
particularly if it is abstract, generalized or
schematic

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 Maps
A map is. . .
a representation, normally to scale and
on a flat medium of a selection of
material or abstract features on, or in
relation to, the surface of the Earth (ICA)

Maps are more than representations of

the Earth
We map concepts
We map ideas
We map arguments
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 Cartographic abstraction
production of a map requires:

selection of the few features in the real world

to include
classification of selected features into groups
(i.e. bridges, churches, railways)
simplification of jagged lines like coastlines
exaggeration of features to be included that
are to small to show at the scale of the map
symbolization to represent the different
classes of features chosen

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Making Maps Meaningful and Effective: Questions to Ask

A meaningful and effective way of visually

communicating spatial information
Why is this map being made?
Who is the intended audience?
What data, tools, and resources are available?
What about the data is being generalized?
What design elements are needed in order to
properly communicate?
In what context will the map be used?
What is the format of the final project?

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 Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

Scale
Orientation
Legend
Data source
How and when was the data
processed and who did it

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 Map Elements
GIS Database is NOT an ordinary databas
Location is explicit in design
Designer has to be aware of cartographic
base that describes/specifies location
Considerations include:
Scale
Coordinate Systems
Map Projections
Datums
Legend
Title
Date
Data Source
Location
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Important Map Elements: The Specifics

Map Title
Context, inset, index maps
Symbols
Map projection
Neatline

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 Important Map Elements: Visual Layout

Visual hierarchy of map

elements
Level of detail
Group related layer features
elements
Symbology
Colour value, hue, class breaks
Choice and positioning of fonts
Interplay between back and
foreground
Consistency

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Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

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Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

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Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

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Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

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Important Map Elements: The Bare Minimum

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A Good Map

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Meaningful and Effective Maps: A Recent Example

Fig. 1. Global map (A) of cumulative human impact across 20 ocean

ecosystem types. (Insets) Highly impacted regions in the Eastern Caribbean
(B), the North Sea (C), and the Japanese waters (D) and one of the least
impacted regions, in northern Australia and the Torres Strait (E). 17
 Implications of Good Maps
Can meaningfully and effectively convey
important spatial information
Message can be conveyed quickly and clearly
Can create new understanding
Can inform general public
Can inform policy and decision-makers

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 Types of Maps: Topographic

Topographic: reference of natural &

human landmarks & features
Most often associated with
topography (relief)
Usually considered accurate
a standard reference map
Topo Quads

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Santa Barbara, California

http://srtm.usgs.gov/srtmimagegallery/index.html
 Types of Maps: Thematic
Thematic: Convey a theme or concept
Chlorpleth: states, counties, etc..
Isoline: Closely associated with
elevation & weather-related
phenomena--but can also be used to
convey other data
Dot-Density: density of dots denotes
value
Graduate Symbol: size of shared
symbol denotes value
Extruded/3D: height denotes value
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 Line maps versus photo maps
an important distinction for GIS is between a line
map and a photo map
a line map shows features by conventional
symbols or by boundaries
a photo map is derived from a photographic
image taken from the air
photomaps free of distortions

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 Characteristics of maps
maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted,
requiring careful interpretation
usually out of date
show only a static situation - one slice in time
often highly elegant/artistic
easy to use to answer certain types of questions:
how do I get there from here?
what is at this point?
difficult or time-consuming to answer other types:
what is the area of this lake?
what places can I see from this TV tower?
what does that thematic map show at the point I'm
interested in on this topographic map?

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 Characteristics of maps
Scale refers to ratio between map objects and real
world objects
if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, then 1 cm on
the map equals 50,000 cm on the Earth's surface

large scale maps show great details but small

areas (1:1,000)
small scale maps show large areas
(1:100,000)

the scale controls not only how features are

shown, but what features are shown
different scales are used in different countries
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Maps: Scale

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Accuracy Standards
Many agencies have accuracy
standards for geographical data
These are more often concerned with
accuracy of locations of objects than
with accuracy of attributes
Location accuracy standards are
commonly decided from the scale of
source materials
For natural resource data 1:24,000 scale
accuracy is a common target
At this scale, 0.5 mm line width = 12 m
on the ground 26
Accuracy Standards (continued)
USGS topographic information is
currently available in digital form at
1:100,000
0.5 mm line width = 50 m on the ground
Higher accuracy requires better
source materials
Is the added cost justified by the
objectives of the study?
Accuracy standards should be
determined by considering both the
value of information and cost of
collection 27
 Visually Compare Spatial Data
Small-scale display
(map extent set to both coverages)

Large-scale display
(zoomed-in map extent)

6 meters

Do the boundaries Overlap? How far apart are

Corresponding nodes? 28
 Cartographic generalisation

1:500,000

1:10,000

1:25,000

City of Sapporo,
Japan 29
 Scale - Data Resolution

Polygon Lines
Acres Mile Feet
1:24,000 2-3 .05 250
1:62,500 5-10 .12 650
1:100,000 25-50 .2 1050
1:250,000 250-500 .5 2600
1:500,000 500-1000 1.0 5280

Data below these resolutions are generally merged

into surrounding data, converted to a point or deleted.

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Data Resolution
2 Acres 10 Acres 50 Acres 100 Acres 640 Acres

1:24,000

1:62,500

1:100,000

1:250,000
1:500,000
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 Scale ~ Map Resolution
Definition: The accuracy with which the location &
shape of map features can be depicted for a given scale.
Decreasing map scale results in lower map resolution as
selected features are:
Smoothed
Simplified
Aggregated
Eliminated
Reduced in Dimension
Area (2) to Line (1)
Area (2) to Point (0)
Understand/document all GIS data source resolutions
Categorize sources by resolution groups
Make careful choices regarding upward & lower bounds
of resolution groups.
Begin to define scales of the GIS database
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 Advantages of computer cartography

lower cost for simple maps, faster

production
greater flexibility in output - easy scale
or projection change - maps can be
tailored to user needs
other uses for digital data

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 Data analysis tools

GIS is a powerful tool for map analysis

traditional impediments to the accurate
and rapid measurement of area or to
map overlay no longer exist
many new techniques in spatial analysis
are becoming available

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 Data display tools

electronic display offers significant advantages over the paper map

ability to browse across an area without interruption by map sheet
boundaries
ability to zoom and change scale freely
potential for the animation of time dependent data
display in "3 dimensions" (perspective views), with "real-time" rotation of
viewing angle
potential for continuous scales of intensity and the use of color and
shading independent of the constraints of the printing process, ability to
change colors as required for interpretation
one of a kind, special purpose products are possible and inexpensive

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 Map Elements
GIS Database is NOT an ordinary databas
Location is explicit in design
Designer has to be aware of cartographic
base that describes/specifies location
Considerations include:
Scale
Coordinate Systems
Map Projections
Datums
Legend
Title
Date
Data Source
Area 36
The precision of GIS processing is effectively
infinite.
All spatial data are of limited accuracy.
The precision of GIS processing exceeds the
accuracy of the data.
In conventional map analysis, precision is
usually adapted to accuracy.
The ability to change scale and combine data
from various sources and scales in a GIS
means that precision is usually not adapted
to accuracy.
We have no adequate means to describe the
accuracy of complex spatial objects.
The objective should be a measure of
uncertainty on every GIS product. 37
 Accuracy & Scale
Accuracy The closeness of results,
computations,
or estimates to true values.

Precision Computer-based: The number of

decimal places or significant digits
in a measurement

Application based: The regularity

or consistency of a result,
computation, or estimate. 38