NURSING EDUCATION

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 Aims
• 1.      The programme prepares the BNSc students to teach
and facilitate advanced critical thinking in the area of
curriculum planning, design, development , implementation,
evaluation of educational programmes for nurses in higher /
advanced education nursing and the use of educational
technologies

• 2.      Accept the faculty position within programme of

nursing or a nurse educator position in a clinical setting.

• 3.      Graduate students will have the opportunity to

supervise basic nursing students in the clinical practice areas
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 Objectives
• By the end of this period of study the student will be able to:
• 1.      Appreciate the reciprocal nature of the teaching –
learning process in the creation of climate that foster growth
and success of the learner.
• 2.      Relate knowledge of curriculum principles in the
design of nursing programme
• 3.      Compare and contrast current issues and trends in
nursing education in Uganda with nursing education in other
countries.
• 4.      Analyse the role and responsibilities of nurse educator
in relation to ethics, accountability, responsibility and
professional development. 3
 Objectives contd…
• 5.      Discuss the impact of technology on nursing education
• 6.      State the beginning of philosophy of teaching and
learning
• 7.      Explore the impact of teacher behaviours attitude, and
values on the teaching learning process.
• 8.      Educational technology (teaching and learning aids)
• 9.      Assessment of teaching and learning and teaching
• 10.  Scheme of work and lesson plan
• 11.  Students will conduct micro-teaching among
themselves
• 12.  Students will be able to conduct teaching sessions in the
nursing training institutions 4
 Course outline
1. Introduction to the principles of education
2. Major theories of education
3. The teaching and learning methods
4. Curriculum development and design
1. Current trends in nursing education in Uganda
5. Ways Teachers Can Use to Help Student Learn
1. Responsibility of nurse educator
6. Impact of technology on nursing education
7. Philosophy of teaching and learning
8. Effect of teacher behaviours attitude and values on the
teaching learning process.
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 Course outline contd…
9. Teaching aides
10. Writing educational objectives
11. Communication in teaching
12. Clinical teaching
13. Assessment of teaching and learning
14. Scheme of work and lesson plan
15. Micro teaching
16. Teaching in the nurse training institutions, (placement)
and briefing
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 references
• A guide for training teachers of health workers, by
M.M.amri, et al (1993) published by the American
medical and research foundation Nairobi Kenya.
• Bastable, s. (2002) nurse as educator, (2nd edition).
Boston, Jones and Bartett.
• Lowenstein, a.& Bradshaw, m. (2001) Fuszard’s
innovative teaching strategies in nursing (3rd
edition). Maryland: aspen

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Introduction to the principles of
education

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MAJOR THEORIES OF EDUCATION

THEORIES OF LEARNING

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 THEORIES OF LEARNING
• While some of the theories are characterised by the differing
values held by their proposers, it is probable that, in their
less extreme forms, they are compatible with each other.
– It is therefore important that the educator is aware of the variety of
ideas which make up the body of educational theory and to decide
how those ideas maybe applied in his or her classroom.
– All may be applicable at different times, depending on
• types of learning,
• the level of the students or
• the values held by the teachers and the schools
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• Learning Some Definitions
• Learning is the process of acquiring new habits, knowledge
and skills which enable students to do something that they
could not do before (Cox & Evan 1988).

• Educational Theory
• The field of academic study dealing with educational
principles and practice

• Educational Psychology
• The study of educational processes or educational growth
and development of learners. 11
 THE MAJOR LEARNING
THEORISTS

• Behaviourists

• Cognitive theorists

• Humanistic/ Social psychologists

12
 Behaviourists
• B.F.Skinner
• Skinner’s theory suggests that learning will occur
and behaviour will be shaped in the direction the
teacher wants if the behaviour is rewarded.
• In order to maintain the strength of that learning
behaviour, reinforcement or continued rewards are
necessary.
• To be effective, the reinforcement must be as small
as possible, each successful act being followed by a
reward.
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 Behaviourists contd…
• Other behaviourists of the 1920s
• Thorndike
– proposed that learning is more meaningful when the outcome
(objective) is made clear.
• Pavlov
– dealt with conditioned reflexes, punishment and reinforcement.
• Watson
– recommended active participation in learning by practice
• R.M. Gagne:
– categorised learning into different domains so that the different
conditions for learning in each category can be identified. In this
way, teaching and assessment can be planned accordingly. The
domains identified by Gagne are motor skills, verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies and attitudes.
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 COGNITIVE THEORISTS
• S.B. Bloom
• Bloom proposed three domains; Affective (attitudes),
Cognitive (knowledge) and Psychomotor skills.
– Within each domain it is proposed that there is a hierarchy of
learning objectives: from the more basic types of learning to the
more complex types of learning.
• Therefore Blooms’s contribution serves as reminder that
learning objectives should be set as high up the hierarchy as
is appropriate for a given student group.
– This is particularly true at the tertiary level where it is hoped that
students will learn higher level skills rather than just remembering
facts.
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 Overlapping
• There is an overlap in the domains proposed
by both Gagne and Bloom. Many learning
tasks will consist of knowledge and skills or
attitudes.
• For example Most skills involve a certain
amount of knowledge and appropriate
attitudes for their proper performance.

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 COGNITIVE THEORISTS
contd…
• D.P. AUSUBEL
• Ausubel dealt with learning within the knowledge domain.
He proposed that details of a discipline are learned only
when they can be fitted into a framework consisting of a
stable and appropriate body of general concepts and
principles.
• New information should fit into existing information rather
like a key fitting into a lock.
• He suggests that teachers begin by introducing materials at
fairy general level and making explicit the relevance of that
material to the task to be learned. 17
• Therefore, the theory is the basis for the
practice, of beginning with the learner’s
existing knowledge and building on to it.
• Eg. In teaching a bout the knee joint one
could begin by saying that the knee joint
resembles a hinge and asking the class to
recall the features of a hinge joint.

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 COGNITIVE THEORISTS
• J.Bruner contd…
• Bruner takes the learner as the focus for his theories and as
an active participant in learning.
• The learner actively selects and transforms information.

• Students should be encouraged to work out things for

themselves.
• He believes, as does Ausubel, that student constructs
knowledge by relating new information to a previously
acquired psychological frame of reference which gives
meaning to the new information.
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• Therefore Bruner is largely responsible for the trend
towards discovery learning in schools.
• Discovery learning provides students with goals and
resources and allows them to work out answers to
problems through their own efforts and use of
appropriate resources.
• In this setting the teacher becomes a manager of
resources rather than an instructor.
• Innovative nursing and medical school curricula have
followed this approach.

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 HUMANISTIC AND SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS.
Carl Rogers
• Rogers provided a learner – centred view of learning. His
main propositions are that:
• All humans have a natural potential and desire to learn.
• Learning occurs when the student perceives relevance
related to his / her own purposes.
• Learning is more effective when external threats are
eliminated.
• Significant learning is acquired through doing.
• Leaning is more effective when the learner is responsible
for choosing his / her direction, discovering resources
formulating problems, etc. 21
HUMANISTIC AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
Contd…
• Abraham Maslow
• Traditional teaching and learning concentrated on force feeding
prescribed knowledge and neglected to encourage the development of
the student as a person with a role in the society.
• Maslow says that education should help students to look within
themselves and from this self- knowledge to develop a set of values
which will guide them in their life of work.
• Therefore, Maslow has emphasised the importance of learning for
self- enhancement rather than simply for utility. This view is relevant
to adult learners who decide to continue their education out of interest
rather than in order to gain qualifications.
• Implicit in this approach is the importance of the individual in
deciding what to learn and how to learn it.

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TEACHING – LEARNING
METHODS

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• Aim
– The aim is to describe different teaching methods and to
enable the learner to select an appropriate method in any
given situation.

• Objectives
– The students should be able to:
– Describe the various teaching methods
– Select appropriate teaching – learning methods for use in
a particular learning activity/situation.
– Organize teaching for effective learning
– Assess the effectiveness of various teaching methods
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 An overview of teaching methods
• Learning can be great fun, but it can only be fun if
the right method is applied at the right time to the
right type of learners and the learners benefit from
the experience,
– short of this,
– learning continues to be a torture and a waste of students’
time & resources.
• One way of making learning fun is to vary the
teaching methods.
– There are as many teaching methods as there are things
to be taught. 25
 Why vary the methods?
Variation of methods helps learning because:
• Individuals are different,
– one method may be effective for one learner but not for another.
• Every task involves a number of sub-tasks which are carried
out differently.
– One teaching method may not be appropriate for all sub-tasks.
• Variation of teaching methods results in variation of
stimulus.
– This is important for sustaining attention and interest.

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 There are many teaching methods
• Can we name some
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
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 There are many teaching methods!!!!!!!!
1. Drama
2. Brainstorming
23. Practical
3. Field visits 24. Programmed instruction
4. Symposium 25. Correspondence
5. Value clarification 26. Reading assignments
6. Seminar 27. Case studies
7. Job attachment 28. Tutorials
8. Story telling 29. Simulation and models
9. Small groups 30. Role play
10. Songs 31. Nominal group process
11. Apprenticeship 32. Syndicate groups
12. Workshop 33. Snowballing
13. Congress 34. Games
14. Poems 35. Debates
15. Research 36. Using triggers
16. Panel discussion 37. Using idioms and sayings
17. Interview 38. Radio, newspapers
18. Lecture 39. Television films
19. Modified lecture 40. Critical incident technique
20. Role modelling 41. Modified lecture
21. Question and answer 42. Buzzing
22. demonstration 43. Worksheets/Surveys 28
44. Index Card Exercise
• Go back to the slide and do the following
– *Examine the list and add to it.
– *Discuss those items which you feel are not valid teaching
methods
– Mark each item in the list according to whether you think it
teaches
• skills (S)
• Knowledge (K) or
• attitude (A)

• Some methods can be used to teach more than one domain.

• Good teaching involves much creativity and planning.

• A teacher who relies on one method only is not likely to help students
learn.
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 LECTURE
• A lecture is a lesson given orally by a teacher with
virtually no students’ participation. It can be
distributed in printed form. This lack of student
participation is the main characteristic of the lecture
in its traditional form.
• Advantages
• It provides an economical way of using staff time.
– Talk about university staffing levels visa vis why lecture.
• It provides a wide field of knowledge in a limited time
• It provides an up-to-date view of the subject and the latest results.
• It is an alternative method of teaching when books & other resources
are in short supply.
• It can include material that is not readily accessible in textbooks.
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 Advantages of the lecture contd…
• It can save a student’s time by summarizing a field
of study.
• It is a good means of introducing a subject.
• The lecturer can inspire the audience with his/her
enthusiasm.
• It is as effective as other methods for imparting
information.
• Where the lecturer has not provided a syllabus,
lectures will indicate to students the subject matter
that is likely to be examined.
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 Disadvantages of the lecture
• It is a one-way learning process in which students are just
listeners. There is no active participation by students or practice
of what has been learned.
• It is relatively ineffective for changing attitudes.
• It pays little regards to individual differences of students.
• It does not provide immediate feedback to lecturers.
• It does not encourage creative activity on the part of students.
• It is not capable of helping to achieve all educational objectives.
• The student tends to regard knowledge as a closed system.
• It cannot provide necessary repetition
• It cannot teach the skills to be acquired by the student.
• Students’ rate of learning declines as the lecture proceeds.

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 Disadvantages of the lecture contd…
• Information comes from a single source.
• It usually provides little time for questions
• It does not provide for team work
• It does not help develop interpersonal relationships between
students and teachers.
• It is less popular with students than other methods when there
are many lectures.
• Students of lower ability are probably helped more in their
acquisition of knowledge by discussion.
• For the interpretation of knowledge and problem solving,
discussion is probably more effective than lectures.
• To achieve the required standard of clinical performance other
forms of learning and actual practice are essential 33
 PRACTICAL
• Practical work is a situation where
students learn in their future working
areas.
Disadvantages of the Practical
• It is not an economical way of using manpower and
resources.
• It takes time to carry out practical work
• It needs administrative staff for preparation and
maintenance of materials.
• It needs special accommodation 34
 Advantages of the practical
• It provides better understanding of lecture demonstration
presentation
• It provides activities and leads to creativity on the part of the
students.
• It is effective for stimulating independent thought and changing
attitudes.
• It is a good way of achieving a desired competence for the
student.
• It provides immediate feedback on performance of the teacher.
• It provides time for the individual student to be helped by the
teacher.
• It provides an opportunity for developing interpersonal
relationships between teachers and students.
• It provides an opportunity for detailed discussion of the
student’s work.
• It is a two-way learning process 35
 FIELD VISIT
• Students go away from the training institution to actually do
the work for which they are being trained.

• Disadvantages:
• It is not an economical way of using manpower and
resources.
• It creates administrative problems in arranging programs.
• It may confuse students because there is usually a wide gap
between field practice and academic theory.
• If it is not well supervised it might become just like a picnic.
36
 Advantages of field visit
• It provides the actual situation in the field, something that cannot
be learnt in the school.
• Students can observe and/or participate in the use of theory
through first hand experience in an actual field situation.
• It provides a situation for creative and independent thought on
the part of the student.
• It provides an opportunity for developing interpersonal
relationships between students, teachers and field staff.
• It can help promote the desired competence and attitudes.
• It provides time for questions and discussions
• Information comes from multiple sources.
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 DEMONSTRATION
• Note: Wherever possible demonstration should be followed
by practice on the part of the students.

• Advantages:
• It provides an economical way of using manpower and
material
• It provides audio-visual observation of the subject
• Students will understand the subject better when they see a
demonstration of a lecture.
• It may be a good means of teaching where the resources are
in a good supply.
• It provides a way of pacing a student’s rate of working.
• It can provide opportunities for learning how to do
something well (e.g. gentle, sympathetic) 38
 Disadvantages of demonstration
• It is a one way learning process from instructor to students.
• Students are just passive observers
• It may not provide necessary repetition depending on the
individual’s pace of learning.
• It has little regard for student’s individual differences.
• There is no immediate feedback to instructor on what has
been learnt.
• It is relatively ineffective for achieving competence, unless
students are given opportunities for practice, or return
demonstration
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 TUTORIAL
– A tutorial is a discussion session between a teacher and a
small number of students.
– The smaller the number of students the more effective
the tutorial.
– The number of students in a tutorial should not be more
than eight. The best teacher ration is 1:1.
– A tutorial must not be a minimum lecture given by the
teacher.
– The teacher should talk as little as possible and
encourage the students to think and learn independently.

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 Advantages
• Communication of knowledge is two-way between teacher and
students
• It provides personal contact between students and teachers
• It provides activity for the students
• Teachers can give full attention to individual differences between
students.
• It provides an opportunity for detailed discussion of students’
prepared work.
• It provides immediate feedback for both teacher and student
• Less able students can be helped by the teacher
• Students’ performance does not decline as time proceeds. It
encourages creativity in students, including the application of
knowledge and problem solving.
• The students tend to regard knowledge as an open system
• It is relatively effective in changing attitudes
• It provides time for questions
• It provides more understanding of the lecturers. 41
 Disadvantages
• It is not an economical way of using manpower.
• It moves too slowly to cover more than a limited amount of
subject matter.
• Students need to do some work on the subject before hand.
• It is liable to interruptions
• It cannot provide the repetition necessary depending on the
individual
• It may be dominated by the instructor or an active student.

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 How do you decide which method to use?
• There are a few guide posts to this.
1. Decide what you want to achieve.
what do you want the students to be able to do at the end of the
session?
• Example:
a. Do you want your students to be able to list the steps in taking a
patient’s blood pressure?
b. Do you want the students to be able to take a blood pressure
reading accurately?
c. Do you want students to be able to explain something clearly to a
patient, e.g. explain to a pregnant woman that her blood
pressure is elevated and what this implies?
In the above examples choose which method you would use.
43
• The skills involved in the three examples are all different.
• Example: a, is a knowledge problem therefore a lecture
discussion would do.
• Example: b, is a skill and demonstration and practice are
necessary. We are interested in accuracy so student could
practice taking each others blood pressure.
• Example: c is a difficult problem. It involves the skills of
explaining thinking and making decisions and having the
right attitude. The student must go through the experiences
described in example a, and b first. Suitable methods for
teaching this may be a simulation and later practical in the
real situation. A practical clinic or ward attachment may be
necessary here.

44
 How do you decide which method to use?
contd…
• 2. Consider the practicability of the method.
– How much time does it require?
– Where is the teaching to take place?
– How many students are involved?
– What level are the students?
– What other resources are going to be used?

• 3. Gather the resources and plan the lesson.

• Whatever method you choose, keep in mind that effective
learning should always be fun. 45
 HOW ATTITUDES ARE TAUGHT
• An attitude is a tendency to behave or think in a certain
way,
• e.g. respect for ideas that other people have.
• Honesty, empathy, love, respect for others etc
– List some attitudes you know
• Certain attitudes are formed or changed during training,
– attitudes are rather vague things; they are hard to define or explain.
• Despite these problems, try to teach students to acquire the
right attitudes.
– You & me know that we need a lot of it in nursing, medicine and
among all health care workers today
– Many people have tended to put attitudes and values aside. Instead
they value money over every thing else

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 METHODS OF TEACHING ATTITUDES
• Providing information to shape attitudes by lectures, films,
stories, etc.
• Providing examples.
– The teacher acts as a model or advertisement
• Providing experiences to shape attitudes
• Seeing patients suffering with particular diseases
• Providing discussion to shape attitudes:
– small group discussion with 7-12 participants
• Role playing exercise:
– students act the parts of different people or patients to reveal some
of the feelings involved.
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 HOW SKILLS ARE TAUGHT
• Communication skills
– Persuading, talking, encouraging

• Cognitive skills.
– Thinking skills, making decisions, choosing appropriate
alternatives

• Psychomotor skills
– Using hands, doing things
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METHODS FOR TEACHING SKILLS
– Describing a skill
– Explain the reasons and stages in performing it
– Demonstrate a skill
– Students see an expert perform the skill correctly with an
explanation of what he/she is doing
– Practice. Students perform the skill through projects,
simulations, job experience, field work, workshops,
laboratory case studies, ward rotation and apprenticeship.

49
 How knowledge is taught.
• Knowledge includes the facts that a health worker
must know.
– Sources of facts are teacher, manuals, books, films,
posters, models etc.

• Method of teaching knowledge.

• Lectures, seminar, symposium, conference, panel
discussions etc.

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 CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

51
 The aim:
• The primary aim is to expose the BNSc
students to the development of curricula
and to enable them to critically review and
develop health training curricula.

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 Objectives
• Define the term curriculum
• The various approaches to curriculum
development
• Describe the process of curriculum
development
• Critically review a given curriculum
• Develop a curriculum
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 WHAT IS A CURRICULUM?
• The term curriculum means ‘a written description of
what happens in the course’.
• It’s the sum total of all the experiences that a learner
undergoes some of which are taught indirectly and
directly.
• A curriculum differs from a syllabus in that a
syllabus is an outline of subjects or even topics
students will cover in a course.
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 Curriculum of education
• Education is what happens to us from the time we are born
to the day we die.
• We are educated on to the time even when we refuse to be
taught.
• Education is initiation into activities and modes of thought
that are worthwhile.
• One can become educated through various experiences apart
from formal teaching or training e.g., private reading, travel,
and social contact etc.

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 Curriculum falls under education
• *Formal curriculum falls under formal education
systems
• *Informal curriculum – informal education system
• *Non – co formal curriculum – Non co formal-
education system.

• Explain non formal , informal and non co formal

56
 Other curriculum terms
• Official curriculum (Intended): This is a curriculum as a written
document on papers in syllabus or prospectus

• Actual curriculum (Operational): This is what is covered in school

that is, its unique set of events that transpire within a classroom
between teachers and students.

• Curriculum development: this refers to a process of creating a

curriculum, test-implementing it and monitoring its performance with
the view of revising and implementing it.

• Curriculum design: Is the drawing up sketching or outlining a format

as a way of building an educational programme.

• Curriculum evaluation: this is the appraisal or assessment of an

educational programme. It is the valuing or determining of the 57
worthwhile of a particular programme.
 The constituent elements of a curriculum
• A statement of rationale.
– This outlines the general philosophy of the training program and
why it is required.
• Outline of the physical, administrative and financial
requirements for such a course (resources)

• Definition of the optimal facilities in terms of buildings,

equipment and personnel

• A precise statement of entry requirements for students and

method of selection.

• A statement of course goals, specific objectives and course

content. 58
 The constituent elements of a curriculum contd…

• An outline of main learning experiences which should be

arranged to meet the objectives.

• An outline of programs giving a logical sequence of events.

• Specification of how long each unit or learning block

should take.

• Specification of methods of continuous evaluation, final

certification, remedial activities and referral of failed
candidates.
59
 FACTORS WHICH INFLUECE
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
• Academic factors
• These factors are significant in influencing curricula. They
represent the views of the teachers who teach the main
subjects of a given health discipline.

• Social factors (and culture)

• The needs of society dictate to a great extent what student
health workers should learn with this consideration, the
curriculum is designed to reflect the social and cultural
needs of the local population, thus rendering it “relevant”.
60
 FACTORS WHICH INFLUECE
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
• Economic factors
• These factors influence both the nature of the curriculum for
health workers and the countries decisions about the kinds
of health professionals to be trained. For example in
developing countries for economic reasons health workers
may be trained to perform tasks which in industrialized
nations would only be done by highly specialized personnel.

• Political factors
• These factors should not be ignored. The number and type
of health workers to be trained is sometimes a political
decision.
61
 PARTICIPANTS IN CURRICULUM DEV’T
• The participants in curriculum development are those
individuals or groups of individuals who exert some
influence, either directly or indirectly in determining the
nature and activities of the curriculum.
• These individuals and groups can be classified into either
external or internal participants.
• The internal participants are those individuals or groups
who have direct connection with the curriculum under
consideration.
• Because of their direct influence, the internal participants
exert a greater force in determining the nature of the
curriculum. 62
 Internal participants
• In developing a curriculum for health workers, six
major groups of internal participants can be
identified.
1. Students
2. Teachers
3. Administrators
4. Boards of examiners
5. Ministries of health and education
6. And professional associations

63
 External participants
• Although the external participants are not directly connected
with the curriculum, they influence the decisions of the
internal participants.
These are:
– Community
– Business and industry
– Non-governmental organizations
– Political bodies
– Donor communities
64
 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEV’T
• Three approaches to curriculum development:
1. The subject-centred approach:
– In this approach, subject specialists define the content
required for a particular level of learner.
– The content is ordered from pre-clinical subjects
through to clinical subjects.
– The approach assumes that nursing is a series of
discrete, independent disciplines, the sum of which
form the required body of knowledge for a competent
health worker.
– Discussion as to how much of each subject should be
included in the training programme revolves around the
total time available. 65
 – The decision regarding total time for the course tends to
be taken by policy makers and health planners rather than
trainers and consequently decisions regarding allocation
of time within the total program are determined by some
mixture of guest mates, influences and the availability of
trainers.

• Although this approach makes curriculum development an

orderly process, it poses various problems.
• It puts the subject before the student.
• The needs of the students are virtually ignored.
• Another criticism of this approach is that too much time is
taken in acquiring knowledge and not enough in learning
necessary skills.

66
 2. The integrated approach
• The emphasis in an integrated approach is on providing
learners with less discrete chunks of information.
• It is hoped that the learner perceives regularities and
principles in the nursing disciplines and hence develops
higher order intellectual skills which are more easily
transferable to the problem solving situations which arise
in their work.
• Such an approach can be used in conjunction with the
competency-based approach.

67
 3. The competency based or task based
approach
• The competency based or task based approach is used mainly in
training. Usually it is the best approach in training health workers.
Some typical features of this approach are:

• The curriculum is organized around the functions of a health worker

in a specified setting.

• The ‘output’ of training is a health worker who can practice at a

defined level of proficiency in accordance with local conditions.

• It is assumed that the majority of individuals can master the

required level of proficiency given appropriate instruction and
sufficient time.
68
• The approach emphasizes that the setting within which the
health workers will be expected to operate is an extremely
important determinant of the required level of type of
competence.

• The most logical starting point is determination of health

needs of the community

• Followed by an analysis of the activaties health workers will

be expected to undertake (job description)

• Breakdown of the various tasks to determine the skills,

knowledge and attitudes required for her/him to be able to
perform the given task competently.
69
Main steps involved in the competency-
based approach are given below.
• Determine community health needs
• Conduct community survey
• Write a job description
• List tasks and conditions of work
• Perform task analysis

•
Objectives – list of skills

•
Curriculum
•

 Objectives
 Content
 Teaching methods
 Assessment methods
 Required resources
 Program (time table)
•

70
• Although this approach has been advanced as a very
useful one in developing health workers’ curricula, it
has three fundamental weaknesses.

• The first weakness derives from the dynamic nature

of jobs change, health workers may be stranded
unless continuing education is provided, and this
may be costly.

• The second problem arises from the list of tasks to

be mastered. Normally, this list is long and demands
that the duration of training be prolonged. This can
71
also turn to be costly.
• Finally, the task-based approach focuses on tasks
which health workers perform (Operative
competencies).
– This is a major handicap when the health worker is
exposed to situations which demand initiative and
dependent thinking. E.g. when the Drug/equipment
change, the health worker cannot adopt. This is a major
disadvantage for the task-based approach.

• Assignment: Read the three main steps in this

process of curriculum development i.e. community
survey, job description and task analysis.

72
73
WAYS TEACHERS CAN USE
TO HELP STUDENT LEARN
(ROLE).

74
• Consider students as individuals, each engaged in
learning on their own.
– Try to make sure that each student gets what he / she
needs.
• Help to motivate students, to see that they want to
learn
• Give feedback to students, tell them how they are
doing
– correct their mistakes, encourage them to continue,
• Also encourage students to provide their own
feedback; check their own work for mistakes etc.
75
 Contn…
• Help students to make sense of what they are learning by
showing how it is relevant to them
– The biochemistry story in MUK
• Provide plenty of practice and repetition of what they learn.
• Organise what is to be learned so that students find it easy
and systematic.
– From easy to difficult
– From what they know to what they don’t know
• Help students see very clearly what they are trying to learn.
– Use illustrations

76
 Contn…
• Accept all students as they are, and then start to do a
good work in them.
– A teacher says: "I can accept my good students, those who
behave and do good work, but I can't accept those who do not
work, who have the wrong attitude and who cause me trouble."
– They forget that it's the acceptance of all that gives power to
the teacher. In fact, it is in relation to students who are difficult
that the teacher's true qualities are demonstrated.
– We all find it easy to accept those who are good. But It is in
their relationship to those who cause them trouble, who are
dirty and poorly dressed, and who fail to achieve that teachers
prove their beliefs.
77
 story
• The story of world stars Mandela and
Clinton
• Who of these is your best hero and why

• The story of the Kenyan police officer Vs

the police commander

78
 WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER?

• Teaching is effective if it results in desirable

learning.
– In teaching health care, the fundamental aim is to prepare
students to provide effective and appropriate health care.
• So the question of how good the teaching has been
(theory) can be best answered by finding out how
well the student provides health care after the
course. (remember evaluation)

79
The Effect of Evaluation on Our Teaching

80
 THE IDEA OF SELF EVALUATION OF
TEACHING SKILLS.

• The first step in self- evaluation is to recognise that

– improvement is possible for you.
• The second step is to become aware that
– teaching is a complex activity that has many parts. (To study your
own teaching you will need to become aware of the parts of the
teaching process). Grace will take us thru that.
• The third step is to decide
– what aspect of your teaching you are most interested in examining
or evaluating.
– You may choose aspects that you are simply interested in pursuing
or that you need most attention at this time.
• The final step involves
– using the materials provided to look carefully at what you do as a
teacher and the effect you have on students. 81
• 1. PlanningThe six tasks of a teacher
– Decide what students should learn
• (prepare objectives / tasks)
– Put the contents in a suitable sequence
• (remember taxonomy of learning)
– Allocate amount of time and different learning activities.
– Select learning activities and teaching methods
– Choose assessment procedures
• including methods and timing
• Don’t forget your learning objectives. We assess these.
– Identify resources needed
– Inform the student about the plan

82
The six tasks of a teacher contd…

2. Communications
– Tell, explain, advise
– Help students to exchange ideas
• Students can still learn in your absence
– The story of our biochem student who teaches others
– Provide students’ thinking
• Remember the petrol station concept
– Use varied teaching techniques
• Be creative
– Detect whether students understand.
83
• The six tasks of a teacher contd…

• 3. Providing Resources
– Prepare, select or adapt educational materials e.g.
handouts, exercises, reference books etc.
– Arrange learning experiences, especially opportunities to
practice skills (visit the wards, Field visits, attachments
to clinical areas & projects etc.)
– Involve health service personnel in teaching.
– Arrange access to materials (Such as patients, learning
models, libraries, audio visual programmes etc)

84
 The six tasks of a teacher contd…

• 4. Counselling
– Show students that you care.
• Listen and attempt to understand
– Help students to identify their options and to make their
decisions
– Provide advice and information that helps students.

85
• The six tasks of a teacher contd…

• 5. Assessment
– Design an assessment that measures how much students
have learnt
– Use the assessment to guide students’ learning
– Use the assessment to give feedback that modifies
teaching.
– Use the assessment to decide whatever students are
competent at to provide health care.
– Encourage students to use-assessment and peer-
assessment.
86
The six tasks of a teacher contd…

• 6. Continuing self education

– Know the subject matter that is taught and
where to find relevant information
– Know the way in which health care is provided
locally.
– Set an example as a continuous learner.

87
 There are several ways in which you can help
students learn.
• 1. Active learning:
Give students some activity to do, e.g. ask questions, set problems,
projects, koans, case studies, etc
– students learn by doing these activities.
– Story of remembering fractions.

• 2. Give feedback;
– Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they
can do well.
– Tell students how well they are doing things,
– what was done poorly and how they could have done better.

• 3. Clarity:
Make your teaching clear, speak loudly, write neatly, use visual aids and
make your teaching meaningful and relevant to the students and to the
problems.
88
 continuation
• 4. Ensure mastery:
– Check that all students know and can do it.

• 5. Individualize:
– Allow for individual differences and abilities.
– Vary your teaching.

• 6.Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your

course.
– Don't let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of
them.
– Reassure students that they can do well in your course, and tell
them exactly what they must do to succeed 89
 contn
7. Be enthusiastic about your subject.
An instructor's enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student
motivation. If you become bored or apathetic, students will
too.
8. Vary your teaching methods.
Variety reawakens students' involvement in the course and
their motivation.
Break the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching
activities and methods in your course: ward teaching, role
playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations,
case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, or
small group work. 90
9. Design tests that encourage the kind of learning
you want students to achieve.
• If you base your tests on memorizing details, students will focus on
memorizing facts.
• If your tests stress the synthesis and evaluation of information,
students will be motivated to practice those skills when they study.

• 10. Avoid using grades as threats.

• the threat of low grades may prompt some students to work hard,
but other students may resort to academic dishonesty, excuses for
late work, and other counterproductive behavior.

91
11. Motivation:
– Make your teaching interesting, lively, relevant
and rewarding.
– Help students feel that they are valued members
of a learning community
– Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.

92
 Motivating learners
• Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about
learning, but many need-or expect-their instructors
to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them:
• "Effective learning in the classroom depends on the
teacher's ability ... to maintain the interest that
brought students to the course in the first place"
(Ericksen, 1978, p. 3).
• Therefore motivation is a very important aspect in
learning

93
 How do we do it
• Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for
motivating students.
• Many factors affect a given student's motivation to work
and to learn they may include
• interest in the subject matter,
• perception of its usefulness,
• general desire to achieve,
• self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and
persistence.

94
 contn
• And, of course, not all students are motivated
by the same values, needs, desires, or wants.
• Some of your students will be motivated by the
approval of others, some by overcoming
challenges.

All in all the methods we looked in the slides

above can be very helpful.

95
 Dealing
• The top With Disengaged Students
three teacher nightmares related to disengaged
students probably runs something like this:
– class clown,
– the know-it-all
– Mr. or Miss "I don’t care."
• One of the most basic things to do is get to know your
students - it's easy to disengage when student and trainer
have no connection and/or have not been acquainted.
– Try to find a commonality for engaging this student.
• Refer to students by name. Listen when they engage in
informal chitchat (you might learn personal details that you
can use to connect with them).
96
 Dealing With Disengaged Students contd..
• A common reason students disengage is because the trainer
simply isn't ready to teach, so be prepared. Clearly articulate
the learning goals for the class at the beginning of the
course to prepare your students for the tasks ahead.

• Then, have your class time planned out, including group

activities, and have all your accompanying handouts, audio-
visual equipment and other presentation necessities ready to
go before class begins to avoid distractions or
nonproductive gaps when students' attention might wander.

97
Impact of technology on nursing
education

98
Effect of teacher behaviours attitude and
values on the teaching learning process.

99
100
Philosophy of teaching and
learning

101
 Objectives of the unit
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Define philosophy
2. Outline the philosophy of nurse and other
health workers education
3. Describe the significance of a philosophy
4. Identify your own personal philosophies

102
 What is a philosophy
• It’s a system of values & beliefs by which one lives.
– Values are principles that guide action and influence each decision
made by a group or an individual.

• It can also be referred to as a comprehensive view, usually

embracing both values, commitments and beliefs about the
nature of things.
– This view influences the way we feel about particular issues.
– The way we feel about issues affects the way we conduct our lives
– Each person has a value system and beliefs and these form the
basis of that persons behaviour
103
 Activity for philosophy
• Think about your own value system.

1. What are the things you value most?

2. What are your beliefs about life?
3. How do these influence your behaviour?
4. Jot these down in your note book and reflect on them
later.

104
 The philosophy of nursing
• In general terms, the word philosophy implies serious study
on a given subject.
– Thus, the philosophy of nurse education or nursing implies unique
and specific ideals attached to the field of nursing and guiding it in
its study and practice.
• The philosophy of nursing is a system of values & beliefs
that nurses ascribe to individually or collectively.
– It is the statements of beliefs about nursing & expressions of
values in nursing that are used as bases for thinking and acting in
nursing practice.
• The values & beliefs are based on beliefs about people, the
environment and nursing.
105
 Example for philosophy
• “We believe that ‘health is a human right and not a privilege’,
therefore, health care services should be made available, affordable,
accessible & appropriate to all p’ple of this country. We also believe
it is fundamental to a developing nation to ensure effective
participation of its citizens in socio economic development, hence the
need for the nursing profession to change and adapt to meet the ever
changing health needs and expectations”

• The values & beliefs are based on beliefs about people, the
environment & nursing.
• The philosophy of nursing states the key concepts essential to practice
of nursing.
• It identifies the most important aspects specific to nursing which unite
nurses. It provides guidelines for nurse’s beliefs, ideals, values &
attitudes in organizing & implementing nursing care in a variety of
settings 106
 Where do we connect these to our
teaching
• From the philosophy we see values,
attitudes, beliefs & ideals come out.
• So in our teaching we tend to ensure that
these values are well inculcated among our
students, and as early as possible.
– If we don’t what happens?
• Answers needed from you

107
 If we don’t what happens
• professionals with ‘I don’t care attitude’
• Health workers who are rude to their clients
• Worse still if the values are not inculcated
the students can exhibit these same
phenomena.
• The story of the taxi midwife
• The story of the consultant gynecologist
108
 Resources and seasoned life
• How do your students spend their:
• Time?
• Money?

• It’s a Show biz in the learning arena

109
• Let us not forget that each person has a set of beliefs
and a value system that forms the basis for the
persons behaviour.
• This set of beliefs & values is not suddenly
discarded on becoming a nurse.
• In some people it is altered to suit the individuals
new role.
• In others it may be suppressed & may occasionally
become a stumbling block to the individuals new
role.
• Therefore you need to realize that a nurse's personal
philosophy influences her behaviour as a nurse.
110
• The personal & professional philosophy may be at
variance.
• Therefore ones philosophy is sound to the extent to
which it matches the professional philosophy &
motivates the nurse to strive for nursing care of
good quality.
• However, we are living in an era of a disillusioned
system of education whereby Grades rather than
inner interest decide what we become.
– so you find that many peoples values (even
professionals) are not coherent with what they are doing.
• So we need to handle this tactfully.

111
 Philosophy of education
• The philosophy of education comprises statements
of values and beliefs about education.
– It attempts to answer such questions as
• What is education?
• Does education aim at knowledge or action?
• Is there a difference btn education for the sake of
knowledge and education for the sake of action?
• What should education do to the learner?
– The story of Paulo Freire the Brazilian

112
• Your beliefs about education, what it is & what it can or
should achieve influences the manner in which you lead
the students and shape them into professionals.
1. If you believe that education should give students pleasure
and power, you will strive to make the process pleasurable
& empowering.
2. If you believe that education should fire up learners & give
them new insights, then you will organize the learning
experiences to achieve that.
3. If you believe that education is to prove how brilliant you
are and a survival of the fittest, then that’s what you will
do.

• Which of the above do you prefer and why

113
 What will the 3rd belief lead to
• Unnecessary strife
• bad competition
• The teacher will tend to do things the hard way to
make the learners feel how hard he also found it.
– We defeat the modern role of a teacher
– “to facilitate learning”
• The story of my two psychology teachers in the
university.
114
 How about today’s education
• Much of today's education is based on 19th
century world-views emphasizing reductionism,
linear thinking and positivism that make it very
difficult for learners to find meaning, relevance
and value in school or life.
• In schools the result is often poor attendance, lack
of motivation, lack of participation and poor
behavior - all of which make learning much more
difficult.
115
 Philosophy
• The philosophy of nurseof nurseiseducation
education the statements of
beliefs and values used as a basis for guidance of nurse
education practice.

• Consider the following example.

• “We acknowledge that the learner is an adult responsible
for his/her own learning, therefore, is able to identify
his/her learning needs & carry out self appraisal. We
support the learners rights to use independent judgment &
evaluation on the basis of reasoning & explanations that
are questioned, challenged, or justified”.

• From the above it gives beliefs about the learner.

116
•
Significance of philosophy
It influences the approach to nursing & nurse education
• It influences the manner in which students are shaped as
future practitioners.
• It directs educational thought, supports educational
paradigms, influences teaching practices and motivates
evaluation methods.
• It conveys moral messages to the students
• It facilitates the process of internalization of the
professional attitudes, beliefs, and values which foster
accountability for ones actions.
• It strives to instill orientation to achieve maximum possible
standards
117
 What next
Our last objective for this discussion was to
Identify your own personal philosophies

• So what is your philosophy?

• What will your philosophy be?

• Will this discussion improve your philosophy?

118
119
TEACHING AIDES

120
90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
121
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
 Objectives
• Define teaching aide
• Identify the different types of teaching aides
• Analyze the different teaching aids, their advantages
and disadvantages
• Outline the purposes of using teaching aides
• Specify the aspects that need to be considered while
selecting which teaching aide to use.
122
 Dfn
• Teaching aides are materials used in teaching to help the
learners grasp a given concept better or easily. They are
learning enhancers. Examples include of learning aids
include visual aids, audio-visual aids, real objects and many
others such as specimens, charts, models, equipment, wall
sheets, posters etc.
 
• Teaching resources/materials are things that facilitate the
teaching process. I.e. text books, classrooms, chalk, black
board etc.
• The issue of teaching aides is closely linked to information
technology b’se a lot of technology is now being used as
teaching aides. 123
 The main purpose of teaching aides.
• This is to enable the students to use all their senses during
the teaching learning process.
– The more the senses used the more learning will take place
• This facilitates the utilization of senses like hearing , sight,
touch, etc and this enhances assimilation of information.
• They enrich and intensify the students learning, improve
perception, assimilation, and retention of learned material.

124
 Aspects to be considered while selecting a
teaching aide to use.

1. Does the objective of the lesson require a teaching aide?

• Many usually do.
2. What aspects of the teaching aide will assist me in the
achievement of the objective.
3. What learning response am I looking for?
a. Is it comprehension
b.Is it consolidation
c. It assimilation
d.Is it remembering
125
 Aspects to be considered while selecting a
teaching aide to use contd…
4. How is the class likely to respond?
5. How will I evaluate the effectiveness of the aide
6. What type of aide will be best suited to evoke the
required response?
7. Availability of the aide
8. Amount of advance preparation needed to get the
aide ready for use
9. Degree of disruption it causes during preparation
and use.
10.The ease with which it is to use. 126
• Some of the aids described.
• The descriptions given below are meant to give an over
view.
1. The chalk board.
• The chalk board is one of those aides which is usually
present in the classroom. Some are portable and others are
fixed. You can write on them during the classroom
sessions. It is possible to use different colors of chalk to
add variety. And even draw diagrams
Advantages.
• The chalk board is easy to use,
• It is almost always available and is cheap.
• It helps to focus the students on the lecture. It is useful in
building up maps, graphs, and diagrams.
127
• Information on the board is very useful for recapitulation  
• Disadvantages of black board
• It needs some skill to be able to use the chalk board
effectively.
• Occasionally the teacher has to turn his/ her back to the
students.

NB:
• you must watch the colors that you use on the chalk board.
Some colors are difficult to read, for example red. Others
can depend on the color of the board.
• The writing on the board should be large enough for all the
student’s to see. You need to have a chalk board plan
before using it and follow the plan.
• Don’t talk while writing on the board. 128
• The flip chart
• The flip chart is an unparalleled aide which in skilled hands
can be very effective.
• It is made of paper of different quality which you can write
on using marker pens of different colors just like the chalk
board. The difference is that the flip chart is portable and
can be pre-prepared. You can draw you illustrations prior.

Advantages.
• The flip chart is inexpensive.
• It is easy to carry and the information does not have to be
removed from the classroom, it can be referred to later.
• It can be used to capture ideas during brain storming, a
lecture or during revision. It can have diagrams and
whatever else the teacher needs to show.
• The teacher can decide and prepare in advance. 129
Disadvantages of flip chart
• It needs skill to use effectively.
– Most educators tend to use it as a scribbling surface
and fail to demonstrate its effective use.
 

130
• Charts and models.
• These are usually used to display factual data in different
forms
Advantages
• They emphasize the verbal content and can act as
operational guides.
• Models provide three dimensional visual impressions which
might be difficult for the students to imagine.
Disadvantages.
• They need to be revised at intervals to make sure they are up to date.

NB charts and models should be clear and simple with a few points only.
• They should not be cluttered with too much information.
• Color contrasts increase their effectiveness. Some suggested effective
color combinations are blue, green, and red. 131
• Graphics.
• These are non language printed aids, such as flow charts,
graph, line drawings and illustrations.
• They are used to show relations and to emphasize specific
aspects.
• They present the full scope of the information in a clearly
illustrative manner.

Advantages
• They stimulate interest.
• They help students comprehend and remember complex
information.

Disadvantages
• They are inappropriate for the visually impaired. 132
• Electronic teaching aids

• The over head projector.

• This is an electrical device which enlarges words or
diagrams on a screen or clear wall. Its very popular and
versatile.

Advantages.
• The machine is portable. Little technical attention is
required if it is looked after well. It can be used without
darkening the room. It allows for a lot of creativity b’se the
teacher can create overlays and other varieties of
presentations.
• The transparence are easy to prepare. During use the teacher
does not turn his / her back to the learners. The teacher can
prepare in advance. 133
Disadvantage.
• The transparence paper and pens can be expensive.
• It can only be used where there is electricity.

NB you need to pay attention to the focus so that the learners

see clearly. Position it so that all can see.
• A tilting screen is best to avoid the key stone effect.
• The machine should be switched off when the point has
been covered and removing transparencies.
• Use a pointer rather than fingers. Point on the machine, not
on the wall. (depends on pointer)
• Do not move the machine while it is still hot.
134
• The slide projector.
• This is a projector machine that shows still pictures. Used mostly
in histology

Advantages
• The slides can be obtained commercially or can be self made if
there is adequate skill available.
• It can be used to show real life pictures.

Disadvantages.
The machine is expensive and therefore not always available.

NB: Position the screen for maximum visibility and focus sharply.
Have the slides in order. You have to switch off the lights when
not showing the slides. 135
• Films.
Advantages.
• They are useful for teaching psychomotor skills.
• They can also be used to reinforce attitudes, problem
solving, decision making and human relations.
• They assist in teaching abstract ideas.
• Films vividly illustrate content with conceptual complexity
whilst holding the student attention.
Disadvantages.
• Long, one can take too much time. In situations like that, film clips
become useful.
• The teacher has to abandon his/her role during the film. The teacher
loses classroom control then.
• A film unless properly introduced may end up just entertainment.
• Imported films may not be culture sensitive. 136
• NB (for film)
• pre planning is critical so that you prime the students on
what they are going to see and what is useful.
• You should introduce the film and emphasize the
objectives because during the show you have no control.
• There must always be a follow up discussion to ensure
that the right concepts were learnt.

137
• Television and radio.
• The main advantage of these is that they are useful
to teach both the literate and the illiterate.

• The major disadvantage is that the teacher has no

control on the content and also, once a program is
missed it cannot be repeated.

138
• Audio cassettes.
• Audio cassettes are much cheaper than video
cassettes.
• They are very useful since they can be replayed
several times and are portable.
• Also an audio cassette player is much cheaper
than a television set to play a video cassette.
139
• Computers.
• Computers are being used in teaching b’se they have
the advantages of speed, accuracy in transmitting
information, they are convenient and store large
amounts of information.
• Once prepared, the teacher does not need to be
there. Students can learn at their own pace.

Disadvantages
• Computers do not provide adequate guidance for
psychomotor skills. They need to be complemented
by other methods.
140
141
WRITING EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES

142
 The dfn & elements of an objective:
1. An objective is a statement describing an
instructional outcome.
• Therefore in education the objective describes students’
performance, not teacher performance.
2. A clearly written objective should enable any
competent teacher to help students gain the
knowledge, skill or attitude specified.
3. A meaningfully stated objective is one that
succeeds in communicating your intent.
143
 Therefore, the best statement is the one that is specific in
meaning and not open to ambiguous interpretations. Consider
the following phrases.
Phrases with specific meaning
• To write Phrases with many interpretations
• to really understand
• To identify
• to appreciate
• To solve
• to enjoy
• To construct
• to believe
• To draw
• to have faith in
• To compile
• to internalize
• To outline
144
• Does the phraseology of the objective describe ‘to
do’ or does it describe ‘to be’?

• Objectives should always describe what ‘to do’?

• It is difficult to teach or assess ‘to be’

– May be think how difficult it can be to teach and assess

behavior change.
– The story of the pathology professor
145
 main elements of an objective
• The main elements of an objective are:

– the act or performance

– the condition

– the criterion or standard.

146
 The act or performance:
• An objective always says what a learner is expected
to be able to do.

• It is the description of the task to be done expressed

by an active verb.

• The performance indicator is the act whose

satisfactory performance implies that the student is
able to accomplish the task required.
147
 Conditions
• An objective always describes the important
conditions (if any) under which the performance is
to occur, it includes data, limitations, and
restrictions.

• Criterion
• Wherever possible, an objective describes the
criterion of acceptable performance.
• It describes how well the learner must perform in
order to be considered successful.
• It is the definition of the acceptable level of
performance expected from the student. 148
 Other elements of an objective
• The other elements of an objective are:

• Time and speed

• Accuracy
• quality

149
 Time limit
• Speed is important but need not be a criterion in all
performances.

Accuracy
• Sometimes the accuracy of a performance is more important
than its speed and sometimes both speed and accuracy are
important. For example
– In emergence situations (both needed or not? What's your response)
– aptitude exam & BAT interviews (both needed or not?

• Examples of accuracy
– Accurate to the nearest whole number
– Accurate to the nearest gram
– With 80% accuracy (for procedures)
– Correct to at least these significant figures.
150
 Quality
• A statement to specify the level of acceptable
performance

NB: Sometimes it is not easy to read an objective and

identify whether a phrase describes a condition or a
criterion because sometimes the two blend together.

• For example,
• “Be able to run 400 metres without stopping”
– Which is the condition and the criterion?
151
• “Be able to run 400 metres” can be both a
condition and a criterion but others may say
“without stopping” is the criterion.

152
 Categories of objectives
• Learning and objectives can be grouped into three
major categories also called domains.

These areas of domain are:

• The cognitive domain (knowledge)
• Psychomotor domain (skills)
• Affective domain (attitudes)

153
• Which parts of the body correspond to these
domains?
• cognitive domain (knowledge) =
• Psychomotor domain (skills) =
• Affective domain (attitudes) =

154
 The cognitive domain (knowledge)
• The domain that is given the most attention is the cognitive
domain. It includes objectives concerning knowledge or
information.
• Thinking, naming, recognizing, predicting and so on.
• Benjamin S. Bloom and his associates have developed a
taxonomy for the cognitive domain
– Taxonomy is a method of sequential classification in progressively
higher levels.
• In the cognitive domain, the taxonomy from simple to
higher level of mental activity is as follows and these are the
stages we go through during learning: see next slide

155
• Knowledge:
Ability to memorise, recall or otherwise repeat information presented
earlier.
• Comprehension:
Ability to interpret or restate the information acquired at level 1
• Application:
Ability to use or apply information theories, principles or laws to new
situations. Crammers find trouble here!!!
• Analysis:
Ability to divide complex knowledge into its separate parts and to
recognize the relationships. Call it mastering
• Synthesis:
Ability to bring together separate elements of knowledge to form new
patterns. Like adding creativity and making new discoveries
• Evaluation:
Ability to make judgments or appraisals based on knowledge or given
criteria. Kind of being an authority 156
• This isPsychomotor
the second categorydomain (skills)
into which learning
objectives may be classified.
• It includes the skills requiring use and co-ordination
of skeletal muscles, as in the physical activities of
performing manipulating and constructing.
• Although no widely acceptable taxonomy of the
psychomotor domain has been developed, various
suggestions have been proposed.
• One recognized grouping (not sequential taxonomy)
is the following: (see next slide)

157
• Gross bodily movements
– Arms, shoulders feet, legs
• Finely coordinated movements
– Hands and fingers, eyes and hands, ears, feet and fingers.
• Non-verbal communication
– Facial expression, gestures etc.
• Speech behavior
– Producing and co-ordinating sound as in a foreign
language or literature reading

158
• Within psychomotor the behaviours included are
physical decision making and communication skills
related to the various health professionals.
• Performing arts, the manipulation of tools, the
operation of machines and other equipment,
speaking and writing, psychomotor behaviour is
generally easy to observe or measure.

159
• Affective domain (attitudes)
• The third category of objectives is the affective
domain.
• This involves objectives concerned with attitudes,
appreciation, values and all emotions, enjoying,
conserving, respecting, and so on.
• This area is very important in education but few
useful learning objectives have been written on it.
• The affective domain is classified into five levels, as
follows: (see next slide)

160
Receiving:
• Willing to give attention to an event or activity.
Responding:
• Willing to react to an event through some form of
participation.
Valuing:
• Willing to accept an event through the expression of a
positive attitude. This is where many p’ple get stuck
Organising:
• Considers values and selects appropriate alternatives on
their merits.
Characterising by a value complex:
• Acts in accordance with the values he/she accepts,
incorporating this behaviour into his/her personality.
161
 Some useful verbs in formulating objectives:
• The three domains often overlap and an objective
may require that the learner gains competence in
more than one area.
• Frequently, the accomplishment of a major learning
objective is dependent on one or more other
objectives.
• If as an example, we classify the cognitive domain
from simple to higher levels of mental activity, it
will be as follows.

162
 List of active verbs for stating objectives
Knowledge
• Arrange • Choose
• Duplicate • Sketch
• Label • Operate
• Memorise • Demonstrate
• Name • Interpret
• Recall

163
Comprehension Applications:

• Classify • Apply
• Define • Locate
• Describe
• Discuss
• Explain
• Select
• Translate
• Identify

164
Analysis Synthesis

• Analyze • Arrange, collect, write

• Calculate • Assemble create
• Categorize • Formulate
• Compare • design
• Contrast • Prepare
• Criticize

165
 Evaluation
• Appraise
• Argue
• Assess
• Rate
• Choose
• Judge
• Predict
• Defend
• Prove
• verify 166
 QUALITIES OF GOOD OBJECTIVES
The most essential quality of an objective is the relevance to
health needs of the community.
An objective should also be:
• Consistent – conveys the same meaning each time
• Unequivocal – no argument dispute about the meaning
• Feasible – can be attained/performed
• Observable – seen to be happening
• Measurable – quantified in an objective way.
• Relevant – makes sense to the situation.

NB: Objectives which have every quality except relevance

may not be very useful in education of health workers.

167
 Why learn how to write good objectives?
• Some of the essential benefits of objectives are:
• They form the backbone of any instructional program built on a
competency base where students’ mastery of learning is the desired
outcome.
• Objectives inform students what is required of them so that they can
better prepare their work.
• Objectives help the planning team to think in specific terms, and to
organize and put into a sequence the subject matter.
• Objectives indicate the type and extent of activities that are required
for successfully carrying out learning
• Objectives provide a basis for evaluating both the student’s learning
and the effectiveness of the instructional program.
• Objectives provide the best means for communicating to colleagues,
parents and others what is to be taught and learnt.
168
 Limitations of learning objectives
• The following are major limitations (or criticisms) of
learning objectives as identified by those who do not
believe they should be explicitly stated.
• Most objectives relate to the lowest cognitive level (recall of
information) which is the least important. This means that
the really important outcomes of education receive little
attention.
• The procedure employed for specifying objectives applies
best to cognitive and psychomotor behaviours. Only rarely
can objectives in the affective domain (attitude) be stated in
observable and measurable terms.
• Your own judgment is vital here

169
 Limitations of learning objectives
• While objectives may be some what useful in subject areas that have a
high sequential content structure, like mathematics, science and
foreign languages, they are of limited use in the humanities, arts and
social science, which do not require sequential cognitive organization.

• A teacher cannot specify in advance all potential outcomes of an

instructional program. The narrow path of an objective based program
may hinder useful un-anticipated needs and outcomes.

• Employing measurable objectives is a dehumanizing approach to

learning and makes education too mechanistic and impersonal.

• Again Your own judgment is vital here

170
171
COMMUNICATING DURING THE
TEACHING – LEARNING
PROCESS

172
• During teaching/training there must be
communication
• Communication can only take place when an
individual establishes some commonness in
somebody else.
• During the process of teaching and learning the
commonness is in the teacher and students, the
trainer and trainees.
• It’s in the students and other students or in the
teacher and other teacher or administrator.
173
 Communication is in two forms

• Can be verbal communication

• Non verbal communication

Usually all both forms take place in one way or the

other in order to have effective teaching so that you
have effective learning.

174
 VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• It involves sending out messages using spoken wards. It consists of
four components that is:
1. The sender or (source) Teacher/Trainer the source of information
meant to be communicated to the students or trainee.
2. Message this is sent out through the channel and it’s the content of
information you are passing to the student.
3. Channel which is the medium through which the message in form of
the subject matter content gets communicated to the student/audience.
It is the spoken words that can be heard by students. Other channels
can be objects, real models which can be seen smelt and tasted,
touched etc.
4. The receiver the audience. Effective communication in a classroom
necessitates a teacher to prepare the subject matter in such a way that
the students do not mistake his or her intention. The message should
be clear precise and to the point.
175
 Problems associated with verbal
communication skills
• The potential means should be aroused by means of
individual of what he recalls, how he reacts and what he
thinks when the word is used.
• Words are not always correctly used
• Sequencing of sentences and period may be misleading
• Voicing, improper vocal cord usage may be misinterpreted.
E.g. high tone, low tone, harsh tone, Command tone and
friendly tone.

176
 Problems associated with verbal
•
communication skills contd…
Masterly of language skills i.e. while talking we use
languages which have codes and rules of expressions,
perception, conception, and many other rules attached to by
their cultural origin e.g. the way one may curse or praise in
one language using selective words may be completely
different in another language
• Listening skills may vary from person to person.
• Ideas or concepts using communication may be
misinterpreted.
• In verbal communication there is also oral discourse, during
this process many sounds gestures are made with physical
movements but they are taken to be equivalent to saying or
telling words.
177
 NON VERBAL
• COMMUNICATION
During non verbal communication the people involved use
body posture, facial expression, eye contact as well as other
body parts to send and receive messages.

• Did u know we are always communicating non verbally

even sometimes without our knowledge of it.

• Much of it is related to various cultural groupings, age,

levels and stages of development, etc.

• Non verbal habit tends to be changed or modified as the

person develops and moves into new cultural levels or age
groups e.g. from childhood to adolescence through to
middle age and to old age. 178
• The teacher is a center of platform for learning that is she/he
acts as a facilitator and enables an individual to learn
• Consequently the teacher’s non verbal communication has a
great influence on the learners.
• Culture is the backbone or base of all our communication
behavior, practices and processes.
• Culture enables a person to behave, perceive and conceive
the meaning of various communication signs and symbols.
• This results in the conveying of intelligible information to
others or to one self.
• Different cultures have different ways of interpreting non
verbally transmitted symbols and signs.

179
• In cross-cultural communication a lot of the difficulties
arise due to the fact that some people involved in the
process do no understand other people’s behavior, symbols
and signals. Consequently a lot of serious mistakes are
made in interpreting their meaning.
• In a two person conversation the verbal component carry
about 35% of the social meaning of situation, about 65% is
carried on non-verbal side e.g. human beings communicate
through their dressing, body odour and make ups, physique
or posture, facial expression, degree of eye contact and on
body movement, punctuality or lack of it and social status.

180
• ***Vocal sounds in verbal communication all communicate
in a non-verbal way in a teaching learning environment.
Effective communication can only be achieved when the
teacher has acquired the non verbal skills to help him
reinforce his instructions. When the teacher enters the
classroom the way of dressing, speaks to the class, his/her
movements have a lot to say about his mood. All this
signals may distract or reinforce, motivate and stimulate
them.
• Teachers have a tendency of using various gestures to
students some of these gestures have different social and
cultural bearing attached to them and their use. Therefore
they need to be restricted to facilitate appropriate meaning.

181
 Misuse of gestures may cause disasters
• Some gestures are appropriate only to a particular
age group.
• There are occasions when praising is a mixture of
verbal and non verbal reinforcement e.g. a nod of
the head and a friendly eye contact being followed
by a phrase is very good.

182
 Visual communication
• This can also be part of non verbal communication

• Sight is the most powerful organ of communication and it is

difficult to switch it off when it comes into contact with an
image.

• Visual communication is higher than any other senses used

in teaching and learning process.

• ***According to psychologists, about 11% of what we learn

is through hearing, 83% through sight
183
• To a teacher this implies you must use a multi-media
approach of all the senses in order to have effective teaching
and learning experiences.

• Visual aids include charts, models. Proper use of visual aid

enhances learning Improve comprehension and increase
retention of information in the learners mind.

184
 Barriers to effective communication

• A communication barrier is anything that can hinder

effective communication. This includes:
1. Difference in the age group
2. Social and economic difference
3. Language and vocabulary
4. Attitudes of both teachers and learners
5. Competition for attention.

***Age difference can be a barrier when e.g. a teacher

instructing adults will need to use language that will suite
them. This may not be the same language used by primary
language teaching the same subject.
185
• Social economic gap can be a barrier resulting from
approaches and gestures that one uses to
communicate e.g. a teacher in rural school, is
transferred to teach in urban school where students
are of a higher economic status than the teacher, this
may be uncomfortable for the teacher.
• Language barrier could be a problem in society of
mixed ethnic group. A teacher must have a full
master of the language used for instructional
purposes.

186
• Effective communication becomes much easier if
those involved have positive attitude. The
source/sender and the receiver/audience must be
ready and willing to communicate.

• During communication process it is advisable to

capture students’ attention so that there is no
competition from external forces.

• A good communicator/classroom teacher removes

all the barriers in his/her audience in order to have
effective communication.
187
188
Assessment of learning &
teaching
Evaluation of teaching and
learning

189
 Objectives

1. Define the term evaluation

2. Examine the concept of evaluation in relation to nurse
education
3. Distinguish evaluation, assessment & testing
4. Outline some evaluation techniques & theories
5. Choose techniques that are suitable for different
situations.
6. Discuss types of evaluation & their uses.
190
 Dfn of evaluation
• Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process whereby
a valid appraisal of behaviour, skill or attitude can be made,
in terms of proficiency in nursing. Evaluation includes the
measuring of the intrinsic worth or goodness of the thing
being evaluated.

• To evaluate means to give value, especially monetary value,

to assess effectiveness, worth or merit and appropriateness
of something, to judge efficiency, desirability and adequacy
according to definite criteria or preset objectives.

191
• The current use of evaluation supports a negative
connotation. Some individuals have a consistent
need to control others. To these pple evaluation
carries a strong power component. Use of this
power is circumscribed by the evaluators perception
of the process. They may then tend to use evaluation
to instill fear in the learners.
•  
• Another aspect of evaluation is that you should have
the right perspective of the results of evaluation.
Some pple may equate the students success or
failure to the teachers success or failure.

192
 Reasons of evaluation

1.It’s carried out in order to plan for change.

2.To monitor progress of participants and of a
program
3.Its useful in order to identify areas which
need improvement.
 
193
 Concepts involved in
evaluation
• The following are the terms that are used in
evaluation and the concepts they represent.
• Assessment:  
• Measurement:  
• Test:  
• Evaluation:  
• Examination:
194
 What is evaluated?
• Whole programs can be evaluated. Specific sessions
can be evaluated. The output of a program can also
be evaluated, in which case it will be the behaviour
of the students that will be measured. In students, we
check on attitudes skills and knowledge.
• In Class room evaluation here we are looking at the
evaluation you make during a lesson, at the end of a
section of the program, mid-course or even at the
end of the course

195
 Principles
• For effective of Evaluation
evaluation you should observe the
following:
      Objectivity should be an inherent part as far
as possible.
      Criteria must be defined and be possible to
observe e.g. expected student knowledge at that
level of training, interpersonal skills expected and
how to tell when it has been done well.
      Evaluation should be seen as an integral part
of the whole learning teaching process,
196
Principles of Evaluation contd..
 Feed back must be given in relation to
who or what was being evaluated.
      The instrument must be valid and
reliable,
      The type of evaluation must be
appropriate and consistent with whatever is
being evaluated (Oguniiyi, 1986).

197
 Aims of Classroom Evaluation
• Evaluation in the classroom is carried out to determine
whether objectives have been met. It assists in
distinguishing success from failure. Evaluation aims at
providing feedback to both the teacher and the student. It is
also intended to motivate, for example, negative feedback
may lead to harder work. Evaluation also protects the
society who receives the products of the programme. It
therefore, aims at improving the teaching-learning process.
It is a quality control process and is a tool for ascertaining
whether alternative procedures are effective in achieving the
set ends.
198
 Types of Evaluation

• There are different types of evaluation -

formative evaluation, intermediate
evaluation and summative evaluation.

199
 Formative Evaluation
• This is also referred to as immediate evaluation. Formative
evaluation aims at ensuring acquisition of knowledge and
skills by the student as the learning process goes on. It is
also used to identify student’s needs during the sessions in
order to guide them towards the desired goals. It attempts to
identify the content, appraise the level of cognitive abilities
and to specify strengths and weaknesses of the student
within an instructional context. Formative evaluation also
allows the educator to try other things if he/she discovers
that the learners are having a problem grasping a certain
aspect of the session.
200
 Intermediate Evaluation
• This is evaluation which is carried on
halfway along a course to make sure that
progress is in the right direction while there
is still time to do something about it, should
there be need.

201
 Summative Evaluation. Also
called Ultimate Evaluation
• As the name suggests, summative
evaluation is carried out at the end of the
programme of learning. It is primarily
concerned with purposes, progress and
outcomes of the teaching process. It
attempts as far as possible to determine the
extent to which the broad objectives of the
programme were achieved.
202
 Evaluation Tools and
Techniques:
• There is a whole long list of evaluation
tools and evaluation techniques. It is not
possible to give details of all them. Only the
most commonly used are given below

203
1. Pencil and paper tests or teacher made tests. Examples
are:
a. Essays
b. standardised tests
c. Objective questions
d. alternate responses
e. Multiple choice questions
f. completion tests
g. Assignments and projects
h. matching questions
204
1. Practical examinations
2. demonstrations and return
3. Oral examinations
4. Peer appraisal
5. Self-appraisal
6. Critical incident
7. Open book tests
8. Programme examinations
205