POWER TRANSFORMERS

Er. K.V.Surya Prakasa Rao

Former S.E/AP Transco
POWER AND DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS.
 TRANSFORMERS

POWER TRANSFORMERS DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS

STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS
 POWER TRANSFORMERS

• The transformers of ratio of 33/11 KV Voltage

and above are called as Power Transformers
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

• The Transformers of 11KV/415V are called

Distribution Transformers
Step-Up Transformers:
All Generator Transformers are step up
transformers

Step-Down Transformers:
All the Transformers in the Sub Stations &
Distribution centers are step down
transformers
 Power Transformers
A transformer is a static device used for
transferring of power from one voltage to
another voltage without change in frequency.
Operates on the principle of mutual
induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic field.
EMF induced in a winding is proportional
to the flux density in the core, cross section
of the core, frequency and no. of turns in the
winding.
 A transformer basically consists of:

• Magnetic Circuit comprising Limbs, yokes, clamping structures

• Electrical circuit comprising primary, secondary windings
• Insulation comprising of transformer oil and solid insulation viz.
paper, pressboard, wood etc. and bracing devices
• Main tank housing all the equipment
• Radiators, conservator tank
• On or Off load tap changer
• Vent pipe, Bucholtz relay, Thermometers
• Fans, Cooling pumps connected piping
• Terminals i.e. connecting leads from windings to bushing with
supporting arrangements
• HRC fuses, LT circuit breaker in a CSP Distribution Transformer.
Types of Transformers:
•Distribution
•Power : HV / EHV class, Single or
Three phase
: Two / Three windings
: Auto
•Oil filled / Dry (Resin cast) / Gas
Filled
•Completely self protected (CSP)
•Pole Mounted, Single phase
Pad Mounted 3ph unit
Transformers Principles:
• Transfers power from one circuit to another without change in frequency
• Works on mutual induction principle
• Comprises of two or more coils linked to a magnetic circuit
• Has one primary and one or more secondary windings
• Receives power at one voltage on the primary
• Delivers power on the secondary at another voltage
• Some formulae :
• e1 = -L * di / dt
• V1 = N1 * dø / dt(Counter emf is equal and opposite to applied volts)
• E1 = 4.44 * f * N1 * dø / dt
• E2 = 4.44 * f * N2 * Bmax * A
• V1/ V2 = I2 / I1 = NI / N2 = K (Turns ratio)
 Transformer on no load:
I0 = √ ( Iµ2 + Iw2)
Transformer on load :
N2 * I2 = N1 * I1
I1= N2 / N1 * I2 = K * I2
(I1 is the load component of primary current)
Transformer with magnetic leakage
Z1 = √ R1sq + X1sq
Z2 = √ R2sq + X2sq
V1 = E1 + I1 * Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 * Z2
 Percentage Regulation = (V2 – V2’ / v2 ) * 100
 V2-secondary voltage on no load
 V2’-secondary voltage on rated full load
 Losses : Core, Copper
 % Efficiency = { [ Input – losses] / Input }* 100
 Conditions of maximum efficiency occurs when
Copper Loss = Iron Loss
 In general a transformer is the most efficient equipment (95%)
 In higher ranges 99% efficiency is achievable
 Auto transformers are used when the transformation ratio differs slightly from
unity
 Copper saved in auto transformer = K * wt of copper in 2winding Tr
Transformer Basic Principles
“Transformer is a static Electro-magnetic machine (equipment) which transforms
alternating current from one AC voltage to another AC voltage at the same frequency
(say, 50 Hz) and at the same apparent power (kVA). A transformer transfers power from
one winding (circuit) to another winding (circuit) via a common magnetic core.
Primary Winding, N1 turns  Magnetic Circuit  Secondary Winding, N2 Turns
V1 rms at f Hz f Hz V2 arms at f Hz = [N2/ N1]V1 arms
I1 rms I2 rms = [N1/N2] I1
kVA 1 VA 2 = kVA 1

Basic Principle of Power Transformer. From Faraday's Law of electromagnetic

induction, we know that: "Emf. is induced in a closed conducting circuit when the
magnetic flux linking with that circuit changes in time. The e.m.f. induced is proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkage." A transformer has a closed magnetic circuit called
the core. Two or more windings are placed on the core. One of the winding (called the
primary winding) is supplied with alternating voltage of power frequency (50 Hz). The
primary winding takes no-load current (Io) from the supply and sets-up alternating
magnetic flux of 50 Hz in the core. As the secondary winding is also placed on the same
core, the magnetic flux linking with the secondary winding also changes continuously at
a rate of 50 Hz. Thereby, e.m.f. is induced in the secondary winding induction principle.
The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding has the same frequency as that of the
magnetic flux and primary exciting current. However, the e.m.f. has a direction opposite
to applied voltage.
• A single-phase transformer has two electrically isolated windings on a common single laminated core. The
core is of laminated soft iron sheets, insulated from each other. Laminated cold rolled grain oriented
(CRGO) silicon iron sheets to minimize hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. When primary with number of
turns Ni is connected sinusoidal AC voltage V1, the AC current in primary sets up continuously alternating
magnetic field () in the core.
• The flux linkage with the secondary winding changes sinusoidaly and sinusoidal voltage V2 is induced in
the secondary winding with turns N2.
• Turns ratio and kVA
• Turns Ratio = Voltage Ratio on No-load
• In an unloaded transformer (secondary side without electrical load) the ratio of Primary Voltage to
Secondary Voltage corresponds to the ratio between Primary Turns Ni to Secondary Turns N2; i.e. [V1/ V2]
= [N1/ N2] = [I2/ I1] V1 I1 = V2 I2
• Apparent Power Level (kVA 1 = kVA 2) = I1V1/1000 = I2V2/1000
• Where I1 and I2 are in Amp. and V1, V2 in volts, rms values.
• Transformers are used for Stepping Up Voltage (N2> N1) or Stepping Down Voltage (N2 > N1) at the same
frequency.
• Direction of the induced emf. in the secondary winding.
• The instantaneous direction of induced e.m.f. is always opposite to the cause (sinusoidal magnetic flux).
This is explained by the Lenz's Law: "the direction of induced e.m.f. at every instant is such that it opposes
the cause of induction." Thus every winding has certain polarity. The polarity is important in transformer
connections, parallel operation, 3 phase windings, etc. polarity connections are not correct, heavy
circulating/short-circuit currents may flow in local circuits.
(A)Generating Station
(B) Transmission Substation
(C, D) Distribution Substation
1. Generator Voltage Level: 11 kV to 28 kV
2. Transmission Voltage Levels: 220 kV, 400 kV
and 765 kV
3. Sub-transmission Voltage Levels: 66 kV, 132
kV
4. Distribution Voltage Levels: 415 V, 1.1 kV, 3.3
kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV and 33 kV
 Transformers - Terms and Definitions
HV Winding: High voltage winding refers to the winding of higher voltage
class.
• LV Winding: Low voltage winding refers to the winding of lower voltage
class.
• MV Winding: Medium voltage winding refers to intermediate voltage
class between HV and LV.
• Two Winding Transformer: The transformer whose cores carry two
independent winding i.e., HV and LV for each phase.
• Three Winding Transformer: Refers to a transformer whose core carries
three independent windings, HV, LV, MV for each phase.
• Single phase transformer has single phase windings.
• 3-phase transformer has a core having 3-phase magnetic field. It has three
phase winding on core.
• Rated Capacity: Rated capacity of a transformer is usually expressed as
apparent power in kVA or MVA.
 Transformers - Terms and Definitions
• Impedance Voltage: It is also called the short-circuit voltage Vso.
• It is the voltage required to be applied to drive rated current under
short-circuit condition. It is A vector sum of Resistance Voltage and
Reactance Voltage. Impedance voltage is determined by conducting
sustained short-circuit test.
• Transformer: A static apparatus which transforms AC electrical power
from one voltage to another voltage at the same frequency by
electromagnetic induction.
• Core-Type Transformer: A transformer in which the windings surround
the limbs of the core.
• Shell-Type Transformer: A transformer in which the core surrounds a
major portion of the windings.
• Auto-Transformer: A transformer in which the primary and the secondary
winding have a common portion.
 Transformers - Terms and Definitions
 Reactor: It is an apparatus having a predominantly inductive coil.
 Series Reactor: A reactor connected in series with the electric circuit for
limiting the currents during surges, short- circuit, starting, load
fluctuations, synchronizing, etc.
 Shunt Reactor: A reactor connected between line and earth or between
lines for providing reactive volt-ampere compensation (during low loads or
no-loads.
 Insulation Level: It is a combination of the rated voltage, power frequency
withstand voltage, impulse withstand voltage values which characterize the
insulation of the apparatus. In case of transformer, the insulation level
refers to that of the respective winding. Basic impulse level BIL is assigned
to each winding.
 Transformers - Terms and Definitions
 Primary Winding: The winding to which input voltage is
applied.
 Secondary Winding: The winding to which the load is
connected or which delivers output.
 Tertiary Winding: A winding in addition to the primary and
the secondary winding which is provided for following
purposes :
 To obtain addition voltage.
 To stabilize neutral in case of a star/star transformer.
 To reduce third harmonics and control zero sequence
impedance.
 Transformers - Terms and Definitions
 Two-Winding Transformer: It has two sets of windings., HV and LV (High
voltage, Low voltage).
 Three-Winding Transformer: It has three sets of windings, HV, MV, LV
(High voltage, Medium voltage, Low voltage).
 HV,MV, LV Windings:
 HV = High voltage, MV = Medium voltage, LV = Low voltage.
 Single-phase transformer has a single phase primary winding and single
phase secondary winding.
 Three-phase transformer has a set of three phase primary and secondary
windings (and may have a three-phase third winding).
 Neutral Point: A point common to three phases of a star connected three-
phase winding.
 Rating: Numerical value assigned to the transformer under specified
operating conditions, which denote the capabilities of the transformer and
which are proved by tests.
 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer (V). The voltage regulation of a power
transformer is the numerical difference between the rated secondary voltage
(V2-r) and the actual secondary voltage (V2-) across the secondary terminals for
given load and its power factors, with rated voltage applied to the primary
winding.
 Transformers - Vector groups - Standards

• Figure 1.28(a): Vector Groups of 3-Phase Transformers

• Even under normal condition the line-to-line voltages on H.V. side are
displaced from corresponding voltages on L.V, side. Also line to neutral
voltage on H.V. side are displaced from corresponding voltages on L.V. side.
This displacement depends upon transformer connections (star/delta). IS:
2026—1972 gives four vector groups of standard connections. These
whole groups are explained below:
• Terminal markings on HV: A, B, C Terminal markings on LV: a, b, c
• Each windings has two subscripts 1, 2
• e.g., A1, A2 for HV winding a1, a2 for HV winding etc.
• Figure 1.28(b): Vector Groups of 3-Phase Transformers
• Transformers are classified in 4 vector groups 1, 2, 3, 4 depending upon
phase displacement has follows:
 Transformers - Vector groups - Standards
 Standard Vector Groups:
 Group
 Phase Displacement
 Connections

 Zero
 Yy 0, Dd0, Dz0

 1800
 Yy6, Dd6, Dz6

 300 Lag
 Dy1, Yd1, Yz1

 300 Lead
 Dy11, Yd11, Yz11
 Transformers - Vector groups - Standards

 The phase displacement is indicated by the angle in terms of clock face. The H.V.
vector being at 12 O'clock (zero) and the corresponding L.V. vector at hour hand
number thus,
 Phase displacement zero = 0 Letter Y represents star-connected HV
 Phase displacement 180° = 6 Letter y represents star-connected L.V.
 Phase displacement 30° lag = 1 Letter D represents delta onnectedHV
 Phase displacement 30° lead = 11 Letter d represents star-connected L.V.
 Letter Z represents star-connected zig-zag.
 Thus the symbol Yy0 represents a star/star winding with 0° displacement.
 Figure 1.28(c): Vector Groups of 3 Phase Transformers

 Transformers - Vector groups - Standards
 Connection
 Salient Aspects
 Third Harmonic
 Star/Star Yy0 or Yy6
 Economical for small H.V. transformers
 Possibility to provide neutral connection
 No triplen currents flow.
 Neutral voltage may oscillate, and triplen voltages may be high in shell-type units.
 3rd harmonic currents and voltages circulate in the delta
 Delta/Delta Dd0 or Dd6
 Suitable for large H.V. transformers.
 Large load unbalance can be tolerated, triplen voltages are damped out.
 The absence of a star point may be a disadvantage.
 They are not present in the line. 3rd harmonic current circulate in delta winding.
 Star/Delta Dy or Yd
 Very common for supply networks.
 One star point for a neutral to serve mixed 1-ph and 4-ph loads.
 Delta winding can carry triplen currents and so stabilize the star point voltage.
 Interconnected Star/Star Yz1 or Yz11
 Reduces triplen voltages and not sensitive to conditions of unbalanced loading.
 Restricted to low-voltage windings.
 Phase voltages are composed of half-voltages with a 60° displacement, 15% more turns are required.
 Sometimes used in rectifier supply.
• VECTOR GROUPS
Transformers - Vector groups - Standards
 Features of Power Transformers

• Single Phase
• Three phase
– Star or Delta connected Primary
– Star or Delta connected Secondary
– With or without Tertiary winding
• Provided with Off-circuit tap switch or On-
load Tap Changer for voltage regulation
 Codes and Standards
• Codes or Regulations are mandatory requirements
stipulated to ensure the safety of the product during testing
and service.

• Standards are the basis of agreement and can be used for

limited scope or even restricted. Standards also promote
interchangeability. Standards exist for material, product,
process, testing, calibration etc.

• Specifications are based on mandatory requirements of the

purchaser and agreed requirements of the standard.
 Design Parameters – From user point

Voltage Ratio No. of phases

Flux density Rated capacity
Current density Insulation& cooling
medium
Insulation levels Tap changer
Vector group Coolingarrangement
Percentage Impedance Oilpreservation
system
Short circuit withstanding Operatingconditions
capacity
Normally flux density is chosen near knee point of magnetization
curve leaving sufficient margin to take care of voltage and
frequency variations. CRGO steel with silicon content of approx.
3% is used for magnetic circuit. Characteristics of good core are :
1. Max. magnetic induction to obtain a high induction
amplitude in an alternating field.
2. Minimum specific core loss and low excitation current
3. Low magnetostriction for low noise level
4. Good mechanical processing properties.

Magnetostriction is change in configuration of a magnetizable

body in a magnetic field which leads to periodical changes in the
length of the body in an alternating magnetic field. Due to
magnetostriction of laminations in an alternating field core
vibrates generating noise in the core.
Current density is an important parameter to design
the section of the conductor for a specified
temperature rise, rated capacity and short circuit
withstand capacity of the transformer.

Different types of windings :

Distributed crossover windingmainly for 11kv
windings of Dtrs.
Spiral winding for 33/11kv transformers
Helical winding for low voltage, high currents
Continuous disc winding for ptrs of 33kvto145kv
Interleaved disc winding for ptrs above 145 kv
Shielded layer winding for ptrs below 145kv connected
in star graded insulation
 Vector Group and Polarity

When induced voltages of primary and secondary windings are in

same direction, polarity of the two windings is same. This is called
subtractive polarity. When the induced EMFs are in opposite direction ,
the polarity is called additive.

Primary and secondary windings on any one limb have induced EMFs
that are in time phase. Different combinations of internal connections
and connections to terminals produce different phase divergence of
sec. voltage.

Vector group or connection symbol of a transformer denotes the

method of connection of primary and secondary windings and the
phase angle divergence of sec. with respect to primary.
 Tap changers
Tap changers are devices for regulating the voltage of
transformers.

Off circuit tap changer : Tap changing can be effected only when
transformer is kept off. These are cheaper. They are used where
frequency of tap changing is very less.
On load tap changer : Here tap changing is effected without
interrupting load. On load tap changer normally consists of
transition resistors which bridge the circuit during tap changing
operation.
Two types of OLTCs :
Single compartment type – In this type selection of taps and
switching are carried out on the same contacts.
Double compartment type – In this tap selection is done
separately and switching is done in a separate diverter switch.
 Cooling Arrangement
Controlling the temperature inside the transformer is necessary
to reduce thermal degradation of insulation to ensure longer life.
Heat generated in the tramsformer is transmitted to
atmosphere through oil.
Different types of cooling:
ONAN type – Oil natural and air natural. Hot oil is circulated by
natural means dissipating heat to atmosphere by natural means.
ONAF type – Oil natural, air forced. Here air is blown on to the
cooling surfaces. Forced air takes away heat at a faster rate.
OFAF type – Oil forced, air forced. If the oil is force circulated
within the transformer and radiator by means of an oil pump, in
addition to forced air, still better rate of heat dissipation is
achieved over ONAF
 OFWF type – Oil forced, water forced. Here water is employed
for cooling oil instead of air. Ambient temp. of water is less than
atmospheric air. Hence better rate of cooling is obtained. In this
type oil to water heat exchangers are employed. Differential
pressure between oil and water is maintained. Oil is circulated at
a higher pressure.
ODAF/ODWF type – Oil directed, air/water forced. If the oil is
directed to flow past the windings, large quantities of heat can
be taken away by oil. Cool oil is directed to flow through the
windings in predetermined paths. Oil is circulated by a forced oil
system like oil pumps. This ensures faster rate of heat transfer.
 Oil Preservation System: Oil readily absorbs moisture.
Presence of moisture reduces dielectric strength of oil. Different
methods are available to reduce contamination of oil with
moisture.
1. Silicagel Breather: It is connected to the conservator tank. It
consists of a cartridge packed with silicagel dessicant and a small
cup containing oil. Air is drawn into the conservator thro. oil cup
and breather where most of the moisture is absorbed.
2. Bellows and Diaphragm sealed conservators: A bellow type
barrier or a diaphragm type barrier is fitted in the conservator.
Air entering the conservator tank pushes the diaphragm
downwards. As oil expands the diaphragm is pushed upwards.
Position of diaphragm is indicated by oil level indicator.
Diaphragm acts as a barrier.
3. Gas sealed Conservators: In this method a cushion of an inert
gas like Nitrogen is provided over oil surface in the conservator.
Gas pressure is always maintained higher than atmospheric
pressure. Nitrogen gas pressure inside the conservator is
regulated by nitrogen cylinder and pressure reducing valve which
admit Nitrogen to the conservator when the pressure falls.
Excessive pressure developed inside the conservator is relieved
through a relief valve.

4. Refrigeration Breathers: An air dryer is fitted to the

conservator. Air breathed thro. the unit is dried in passing down
a duct cooled by a series of thermoelectric modules based on
Peltier effect. Top and bottom ends of the duct are terminated in
the expansion space above oil level in the conservator and air is
continuously circulated thro. the duct by thermosyphon forces.
Short circuit withstanding capacity
Effects of short circuit: Energy in the system gets released in
the form of heavy flow of current when fault occurs. Every fault
fed by the transformer stresses the windings. The stress
developed in the winding is related to the intensity of fault.
Each fault causes sharp rise in temperature and produces
mechanical forces in the
winding.
These forces act in the axial and radial directions of the
winding, and cause compressive or tensile stresses on the
winding and tend to deform it.
RADIAL FORCES: ARE DUE TO FLUX IN THE SPACE
BETWEEN COILS. TEND TO BURST COILS AND CRUSH
ON THE CORE.

STRENGTHENING OF WINDING

AXIAL FORCES: ARE DUE TO RADIAL COMPONENT OF

FLUX WHICH CROSSES THE WINDING AT THE ENDS
AND GIVES RISE TO AXIAL COMPRESSIVE FORCE
TENDING TO SQUEEZE THE WINDING IN MIDDLE.

PROPER DRYING, COMPRESSION AND CLAMPING

THERMAL EFFECT: RAPID RISE OF TEMPERATURE
CAUSES

i) MECHANICAL WEAKENING OF INSULATION DUE

TO THERMAL AGEING – LONG TERM EFFECT.

ii) DECOMPOSITION OF INSULATION TO PRODUCE

GASES – SHORT TERM EFFECT.

iii) CONDUCTOR ANNEALING – BECOMES BRITTLE

& CRACKS WILL BE FORMED.

LIMIT OF MAX. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AFTER

SHORT CIRCUIT IS 2500C FOR OIL IMMERSED
TRANSFORMER USING COPPER WINDING.
 OPERATING CONDITIONS
The environment in which a transformer works and the
quality in design and construction play a role on its
performance. A transformer working under normal operating
conditions, in all probability, gives satisfactory performance
throughout its life
.
NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
1. Rated voltage and rated current with permissible margins.
2. Temperatures of oil and windings not exceeding the
prescribed values.
3. Availability of auxiliary and control supply and proper
functioning of accessories and protective devices.
4. Free from external faults such as line breakdowns and
equipment breakdowns.
 User should specify the conditions under which transformer is
expected to work viz. quality and nature of load temperature
limit, voltage conditions, short circuit withstand capacity
considering present and expected fault levels. Parameters specific
to locations are to be evaluated and specified to assess the
operating requirement. Manufacturers should ensure that factory
tests as required under standards and the user specifications are
done to verify the quality and ability of the transformer to
withstand all service stresses during life time of the transformer.
 Design Basis
• Life-time cost of transformer

= Initial cost of transformer

+
Operational cost for its life period

This is called the

“Capitalized cost of transformer”.
 Design Basis - Capitalization

Rationalised CBIP Capitalization Formula:

Capitalized Cost = Initial Cost (IC) + Capitalized { No-
load Loss (Wn) + Load Loss (Wl) + Auxiliary Losses
(Wa) }
Capitalized cost = IC + Xn.Wn +Xl.Wl +
Xa.Wa
Factors affecting Xn; Xl and & Xa
Rate of Interest
Rate of Electrical Energy
Life of Transformer
 Design Basis

 The design of a transformer aims at achieving lowest

capitalized cost.
 Low No-load Loss means higher magnetic material cost
and vice-versa
 Low Load Loss means higher copper (material) cost and
vice-versa.
 Several iterations are made to optimize the total cost
before freezing the design and drawings are made.
 Extensive use of CAD programs is needed for finalizing
design.
Design Principles
Design Principles - Core
 Design Principles - Core

 Higher the number of steps in cross section, better is space

utilization and smaller is the core diameter.
90 to 95 % utilization factor is optimal.
 Core area (A) is determined by the Flux Density (B) which in
turn depends on many factors - like loss capitalization and
overall design economics.
 As the no load losses attract very high capitalization, attempts
are continuously made to reduce them.
 Design Principles - Core

• Improved manufacturing techniques like

core building with 2-lamination packets, step-lap joints, v-
notched laminations,
bolt-less cores are used.

• Hi-β core steels like M0H, ZDKH, etc are available in which
the specific core losses are lower than normal grades.
• Generally0.27M4 grade CRGO core is used.
• With HIB 0.27 grade core losses are reduced by16%.
• HIB 0.23 grade core losses are reduced by24%.
• ZDKH 0.23 grade core reduces losses by 38%.
A A

ViewA-A

Conventional Steplap
 Design Principles
Windings- L.V winding
 L.V Windings in Transformers are either
 Spiral OR layer wound for low current ratings
 Helical Wound with radial cooling ducts
for higher ratings.
 Disc type wound
 Distributed Cross-over (Run-over) coils
 The conductor used is paper insulated rectangular
copper (PICC)
 For higher currents, transposed conductors are used, to
uniformly distribute the current across the cross section
of the wire of coil.
 Spiral/Layer type Winding

Conductor – Layer 1

Mandrel/Press-board cylinder Conductor – Layer 2

Conductor – Layer 3

Cooling Duct
 Design Principles- L.V winding

Start Finish

Helical Coil (Single layer) Helical coil (Double Layer)

 Transposed Conductors
Transposed conductors (CTC) are used to improve current distribution in the
cross section of the winding wire.
Individual cable can be coated with epoxy so that the cured and finished
conductor is mechanically stronger and withstand s short circuit forces
better.
 Design Principles
H.V Winding/1

HV winding invariably uses PICC or CTC.

Type of winding used is

- Layer winding or

- Disc winding up to 132 kV and/or

- Interleaved winding or
- Rib shielded winding
 POWER SYSTEM OVER VOLTAGES

Power Systems Over voltages

Temporary Over-voltages Switching Over-voltages Over-voltages due to lightning.

 Temporary Over-Voltages

• Typically due to faults

• < 1.2 pu
• ms to tens of second or even minutes
• Not dangerous to insulation
 Switching Over-Voltages

• Due to system switching operations

• 1.5 pu – 5 pu depends on system voltage
• mostly damped asymmetric sinusoids
• front time of first peak – tens of s to a few ms.
• decides external insulation in EHV/UHV systems
 Over Voltages due to Lightning

• Due to ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’ lightning strokes.

• known to contribute to  50% of system outages in EHV &
UHV systems
• few hundred kV to several tens of MV.
• Few kA to 200 kA
• very short duration : time to front : 1 to few tens of s
• time to tail : few tens to hundreds of s.
• Decides line insulation (BIL)
• Severely influences Transformer insulation.
 Design Principles
Impulse Voltage Distribution

Cg
Cs
α = K √ Cg/Cs
 Design Principles
Impulse Voltage Distribution

α= 0

α =5

α= 10
X
Disc Type Winding

Paper Insulated Conductor

Press-board Cylinder
 Disc winding concepts
Conventional Shielded Interleaved

4 32 1 3 2S1 6 25 1

5 67 8 4 5S6 3 74 8

9 8 7 9
V
O
L
Impulse Voltage
T Distribution
A
G
E
1. Plain Disc Winding
2. Rib Shield Winding
G
3. Inter-leaved Disc Winding
R
A
D
I
E
N
T

P
u

Number of discs from line end

 Design Principles
Tertiary Winding/1
In Star-Star Connected Transformers and Auto-
transformers, Tertiary Winding is used-
- to stabilize phase to phase voltages in case of unbalanced
load
- Suppressing third harmonic currents in earthed neutral
- reducing zero sequence reactance
- for supplying auxiliary load or for connecting capacitors.
 Design Principles
Tertiary Winding/2
 Tertiary is required to be designed for a power rating equal to
one-third the rated power, it increases the cost of the transformer
by 10- 12 percent.

 Tertiary winding is known to fail due to transferred surges and

Short circuits

 Present practice is to do away with tertiary up to 100 MVA for 3

phase 3 limbed core transformers.
 Design Process
• Design should meet
– Requirements of customer specification
– Relevant national or international standards
– Statutory and regulatory requirements
– Manufacturer’s Plant Standards

• Optimized design
 Optimization
• Objective of Optimization
To arrive at a design that yields minimum
capitalized cost.

• It is a function of the following:

 Core diameter
 Core height
 Flux Density
 Current Density
 Trends in Design

Computer Aided Designs

Role of Information Technology
in
Transformer Designs
 Purpose of IT
• Improve productivity of design personnel
– Release of Engineering information may be 25
– 40% of delivery cycle.

• Reduce delivery cycle

• Better analysis and arriving at a most optimum design

• To solve electro-static, electro-magnetic problems and to

provide a robust structural and thermal design.
 Why IT in Design
• More precise calculations

• Tailor made designs

No standard ratings specified above 1 MVA
Change of specification parameter
Relative change of material cost
Ongoing development of technology
 Computer Aided Design

• DESIGN OPTIMISATION
• DESIGN ANALYSIS “FEM” 2D / 3D ENGINEERING
• ANALYSIS
• ELECTROMAGNETIC
• ELECTROSTATIC
• STRUCTURAL
• THERMAL
• COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING
• DATABASE AND DATA MANAGEMENT
 What is Quality?
Conformance Quality
Performance Quality
Appearance Quality
Functional Quality QUALITY OF
DESIGN/GRADE
Esteem Quality
‘Ability’ Quality
FITNESS FOR USE
 Inter-relationship between
‘Fitness for Use’ parameters

QUALITY OF
DESIGN

QUALITY OF
CONFORMANCE

FITNESS
FOR USE
ABILITY
CHARECTERISTICS

FIELD SUPPORT
 Poor quality results in failures.

Types of failures

 Infant failures: Early life failures are the result of

latent defects.
- Latent defects are abnormalities that cause failure,
depending on degree of abnormality and amount of applied
stress.

- Delivered defects are those that escape test /

inspection within the factory

- They are directly proportional to total defects in

the entire processes.
 Types of failures

 Mid life failures: These are results of –

- Freak system disturbances
- Wrong specifications
- Poor maintenance
 Types of failures

 Old age failures: These are results of –

- Ageing of insulation system
- Wear & tear
Transformer
Cooling
Methods of Cooling:
Several different combination of natural, forced, air, oil,
cooling are applied to transformer. The choice depends on
rating, size and local conditions.
Designations and Nomenclature:
The type of cooling is identified by the standard
designation, A.N., A.F., O.N., A.N., O.N.A.F., O.F.A.N.,
O.N.W.F., O.F.W.F., and combinations thereof several
cooling methods are possible for transformers. The
symbols used are:
(a) Cooling Medium (b) Circulation
Air - A Natural - N
Gas - G Forced - F
Synthetic Oil - L
Mineral Oil - O
Solid Insulation S
Water - W
 Types of Cooling of Power Transformers

Symbol Title` Description

This is widely used for transformers upto 30 MVA

0.N. AN. Oil Natural Air Natural transformers are fitted with panel type radiators for oil natural
circulation.

This is widely used for transformers between 30 MVA and 60

O.N.AF. Oil Natural Air Force MVA. The panel type radiators are provided with cooling
fans. Fans are switched on during heavy loads only.

This method is used for transformers above 60 MVA. The oil

O.F.AF. Oil Forced Air Forced circulated through coolers. The coolers have cooling fans to
exchange heat from oil to air.

Oil Forced Water The heat is exchanged from oil to cooling water. Both oil and
O.F.W.F.
Forced cooling water are circulated through radiator.

The ambient air used for cooling. This method is useful for oil
A.N. Air Natural
less transformer upto 1.5 MVA.
• In OFAF, the Oil is forced and the Air is also forced. The disadvantage is that, the Transformer
does not have a ONAN rating. Auxiliary supply must always be ensured.
• Radiators can be of two types :
• (1) Tank Mounted- For Small Capacity Trs.
• (2) Separately Mounted- for Large Trs.
• Normally standby Fan for each bank and standby oil pump is specified to take care of failure
of any Fan/ Pump.
• In OFWF cooling system, the pressure of oil in the cooler is maintained above the pressure of
water. The inlet temperature of Water should not exceed 300 C. A complete standby water
cooler is maintained which must be designed to be taken into service when desired. Normally
Hydro station Gen Transformer have this cooling
• Flow indicators with alarm are provided for OFWF cooling.
• Alarm is provided for cooler fan failure/ AC auxiliary supply failure
• Cooler fans and oil pumps are controlled by winding Temperature Mercury switches and
insulating oil requirement:
• 1.0/lt per kVA for Transformers from 400 to1600 kVA
• 0.6lts per kVA for Transformers from 1600 to 80000 kVA
• 0.5lts per kVA for Transformers above 80000 kVA
1. Tank 2. Cooler 1. Tank 2. Cooler
3. Oil Pump 4. Conservator 3. Oil Pump 4. Fan
5. Coolent Flow (Forced Water) 5. Coolent Flow (Forced Water)

Figure 1.9(a): OFWF Figure 1.9(b): OFWF Cooling

Protective Equipment of the
Transformers
Silica Gel Breather:
 Prevents Moisture Ingress
 Connected to Conservator Tank
 Silica Gel is Blue when Dry; Pink when moist
Oil Seal provides a Trap for Moisture before passing thro Silica Gel
Failure rate of Transformers in our Country is on high side compared to many
advanced countries. The failure of distribution transformers is very much
compared to power transformers. The main reasons for the high failure of
distribution transformers are as follows:
 By Forced cooling the Transformer capacity can be increased by more than
50%.
Silica Gel Breather
Silica Gel Breathers
• Silica Gel Breathers
• Silica Gel Breather
• Protective Devices:
• Buchholtz Relay:
– It is a Main Gas Operated Protection
– It is mounted on the pipe between the Conservator & Main tank.
– The above pipe is inclined at an Angle of 3 to 70.
– It has a Float and two sets of Mercury Switches.
– It has a Glass Gauge marked in CC.
– The Relay can give an Alarm or Send a Trip signal for Isolation
– Gas Trapped inside operates the above contacts.
– It has an Air Release Cock and a Drain cock
– A Stop Valve Provided helps in Testing the Relay Injection
– The Relay should be periodically Tested by Air Injection
Bucholtz Relay
1 Pet cock

2 Counter balance weight

3 Alarm Circuit

4 Trip circuit

5 Battle plates

6 Plates for adjusting size of

aperture in deflector

7 Deflector plate

8 Drain plug

9 Mercury switch

10 Test lever
Diagrammatic Illustration of 2 & 3 Relays (Alarm Circuit Closed)
Actuated Protective (Buchholz) Relay:
 Although the transformer is a very reliable piece of
apparatus modern conditions of supply and
distribution demand that all possible precautions be
taken to preserve continuity of electrical service.
 An oil immersed transformer is not completely
protected unless it is filled with a gas actuated relay.
It defects faults prior to primary break down and
minimizes the propagation of any damage which may
occur within the transformers by giving an alarm.
 The relay is therefore particularly effective in
cases of:
◦ Short circuit of core laminations.
◦ Broken down core bolt insulation.
◦ Over treating of some parts of windings.
◦ Bad contacts
◦ Short circuits between phases/turns
◦ Earth faults
◦ Puncture of bushing insulators inside tank
 Further more the relay can prevent the
development of conditions leading to a fault in
transformer such as taking of oil level owing to
leaks or the ingress of air as a result of defects in
the oil circulating systems.
• Operation Features:
• The operation of Buchholtz relay is based
upon the fact that every kind of fault in an oil
filled transformer causes decomposition of
the insulating material either liquid or solid,
due to over heating in the fault zone or due to
the action of an intense electric field which in
turn result in a more or less violent generation
of gases. These reach the relay through the
pipe connecting the transformer to the
conservator.
Construction of buchholtz relay:
• The gas activated relay comprises an oil tight cast iron housing which has
on either side a flange for mounting purpose.
• Type MR (Machine Fabique Reinhiussen) make OLTC provides three
different protections for the Diverter Switch.
• RS2001 protection Relay: It will respond to pre Set Oil Flow Pressure and
even low energy faults and isolate the transformer protected.
• Rupture Disc: It is a standard protection without signal contacts, provided
on the top cover with every Diverter and it respond to large energy faults
and prevents damage by isolating the TR.
• Pressure Relief Device M. PreC is Optional. It replaces the Rupture Disc, it
can be in additional to RS 2001. It isolates the Transformer in case of
faults.
• All these are designed to operate with a response time commensurate
with the pressure created inside the diverter due to fault. Hence these are
not replaceable with other makes.
Construction:
• The gas activated relay comprises an oil tight cast iron housing which has on either
side a flange for mounting purpose.
• Type MR (Machine Fabique Reinhiussen) make OLTC provides three different
protections for the Diverter Switch.
• RS2001 protection Relay: It will respond to pre Set Oil Flow Pressure and even low
energy faults and isolate the transformer protected.
• Rupture Disc: It is a standard protection without signal contacts, provided on the
top cover with every Diverter and it respond to large energy faults and prevents
damage by isolating the TR.
• Pressure Relief Device M. PreC is Optional. It replaces the Rupture Disc, it can be
in additional to RS 2001. It isolates the Transformer in case of faults.
• All these are designed to operate with a response time commensurate with the
pressure created inside the diverter due to fault. Hence these are not replaceable
with other makes.
• Pressure Relief Valve
• Vent Pipe
Temperature Indicators:
 (1) For Oil Temperature
 (2) For Winding Temperature
 They indicate maximum temperature, Resettable they indicate current temperature.
 Each indicator has two sets of mercury switches operated by temperature to give alarm and trip.
 The WTI has additional switch for auto operation of cooling equipment.
 The coolers can automatically start or stop.
 It has a temperature sensing bulb placed in a Socket on the top of the transformer tank.
 Two capillary tubes connect the bulb and the instrument.
 One capillary tube connects the operating bellow.
 The second one connects a compensating bellow.
 The operating system is filled with a liquid which changes its volume as the temperature varies.
 The compensating bellow acts on the operating bellow to compensate the Ambient Temperature.
 The bellow expands or contracts as the temperature varies.
 This is transmitted to the temperature indicator.
 The graduated temperature settings can be adjusted.
 OTI & WTI work on the same principle but in WTI an additional bellow heated by a resistor in the
WTI CT circuit which represents the actual winding temperature is provided.
 As it is not possible to measure the winding temperature directly, it is measured by thermal imaging.
 Temperature variations in the heating element are proportional to the winding temperature.
 It simulates the increase in the winding Temperature over Oil Temperature. This indicates the Hot
Spot Temperature.
• TEMPERATURE INDICATORS OF A POWER TRANSFORMER
Themometers for EHV Transformers
• MOG
• MOG WITH OIL LEVEL SWITCH
On Load Tap Changers
 Topics to be covered
• What is tap changer
• Types of tap changers
• Principle of tap change
• Tapping winding arrangements
• Tap change operation
• Parts of tap changer
• Inspection of tap changer
• Maintenance of tap changer
 What is tap changer?
• An equipment used for voltage regulation of
transformers in energy net works and
industrial applications.
• By changing tapping on a winding, it varies
the turns ratio and hence the out put voltage.
 Types of Tap Changers
• Based on application
–Off-Circuit tap changer
–On Load Tap Changer (OLTC)

• Based on mounting (for OLTC)

– Internal
– External
Internally Mounted OLTC
Externally mounted OLTC/1
Externally mounted OLTC/2
 Types of Tap Changers
• Based on function
– Constant Flux Voltage Variation (CFVV)
– Variable Flux Voltage Variation (VFVV)
– Combination of above both
• Based of method of tap change
– Linear
– Reversing
– Coarse – Fine
– Bridging
 Principles of Tap Change
• Constant Flux Voltage Variation (CFVV)

• Variable Flux Voltage Variation (VFVV)

 Principles of Tap Changers

Constant Flux Voltage Variation Variable Flux Voltage Variation

 Tap Changer Location
• Neutral End
• Middle of the Winding
• Line End
 Tap Changer Location

Neutral End Middle of winding Line End

Tapping Winding Arrangements
• Linear
• Reversing
• Coarse-Fine
Linear Reversing Coarse – Fine
 Basic conditions of operation
• Load current must not be interrupted during tap
change operation.
• Tap change must occur without short-circuiting the
tap winding directly.
• Positive change of tap position.
– It means ‘make-before-break’ mechanism to be
used. This calls for a transition impedance.
– Also the mechanism should be fast acting type –
spring loaded.
 General Design considerations
• Capable to normal load/overloads on transformer.
• Maximum system voltage
• Step voltage & no. of steps
• Test voltage to earth and across tapping range
• Maximum surge voltage to earth and across range.
• Maximum test voltages between phases (where
applicable)
• Current rating – normal and overload
 Parts of Tap Changer
• Selector switch
– Tap selection takes place in this switch
• Diverter Switch
– Make –before-break mechanism with transition
impedance. Arcing takes place and hence housed
in a separate compartment.
• Surge relay
• Conservator with oil level gauge.
 Transition Impedance
• Reactor type
• Resistor type
Requirements of Transition Impedance
• No voltage fluctuations during switching
cycle
• Circulating currents should not be
excessive
• Duration of arc should be minimum to
minimize contact erosion and reduce
contamination of oil.
 TAP CHANGER CONTROLS
• Manual / Electrical
• Local / Remote
• Manual / Automatic
• Independent Operation
• Parallel Operation
– Group Control
• Master
• Follower
Principle of Tap changer operation

8
7
6 5
4 3
1
2
R2 R1

M2 T2 T1 M1

N
 1 2 3

M2 T2 T1 M1 M2 T2 T1 M1 M2 T2 T1 M1

M2 T2 T1 M1 M2 T2 T1 M1 M2 T2 T1 M1

4 5 6
 Parts of Tap Changer
• Motor drive mechanism
– Should rotate in both the directions
– Step-by-step operation
– Tap change in progress indication
– Tap change complete indication
– Sequence contact
– Remote Tap position control & indication
Tap Changer Head Cover
Diverter Switch
Transition Resistance
Blow-up view of

Diverter Switch
Inspection
Intervals
 Inspection Intervals
• Inspection can be done in one day.
• Recommended to call OLTC manufacturer – at least
first time.
• Table gives number of tap change operations
determining inspection intervals
• Regardless of number of operations, inspect after 4
years if the operating voltage is ≥220 KV and 6-7
years if <220KV
 Inspection Intervals
• Tap selectors are generally maintenance-free. For
industrial transformers where no. of operations are
very high, inspect after about 1,000,000 operations.
• Diverter switch unit to be replaced after about
800,000 operations.
• If no. of operations/year is >15000, use oil filter for
the diverter unit. This increases the life by removing
most of abrasive particles responsible for
mechanical wear.
 Summary of inspection work
• Withdrawing and reinstalling diverter unit
• Cleaning diverter oil switch compartment and
diverter switch unit and OLTC conservator.
• Changing the diverter oil.
• Determining contact wear
• Measuring transition resistors
• Checking protective relay.
• Diverter should not be exposed to air for more than
10 hours
 Tap Changer Oil Quality
Standard values for transformer oil testing according to
CIGRE 12 – 13 (1982) apply to tap changer oil at
service temperature.

Use of tap changer Water content Dielectric strength

At neutral point of < 40 ppm > 30 KV

windings
At positions other < 30 ppm > 40 KV
than neutral end
 Maintenance of Tap Changers
Sl Check Periodicity Action
No
1 Diverter oil Manufacturer’s Process/replace oil
recommendation
2 Diverter contacts – - DO - Replace if badly
pitting & contact pitted & inform
pressure manufacturer if
pressure is less
3 Oil surge relay Half-yearly Rectify/replace
healthiness
4 Selector contacts & Manufacturer’s Replace/inform
pressure recommendation manufacturer
 OLTC Faults
• Mechanical: Related to drive mechanism,
shafts, springs etc

• Electrical: Related to drive mechanism,

contact wear and tear, dielectric failures, etc

• Thermal: Burning of diverter contacts

 Transformer Oil
Specifications-Filteration, reclamation

K . V. Surya Prakasa Rao.,

Former S.E.(AP Transco)
 ROLE OF TRANSFORMER OIL

1. The role as dielectric medium

2. Heat transfer agent or coolent
3. Arc-quencher
REQUIRED BASIC PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL
1. High electric strength - to withstand high electric Stresses
2. Sufficient low viscosity - to be able to circulate and to transfer heat
3. Adequate low temperature properties - down to the extreme of climatic conditions
4. Proper oxidation resistance - to ensure long life
MAIN CAUSES FOR DETERIORATION OF OIL ARE
1. Physical contamination
2. Chemical contamination
3. Contamination by gases
PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION
1. Contact with construction particles
2. Fibrous impurities like paper, press board, cotton tapes, rubber etc.
3. Dissolution of varnish (Paint)
4. Moisture by leakage, breathing action, during draining or topping up operation
5. Chemical reactions etc.
CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION
1. Thermal decomposition
2. Oxidation
3. Catalytic effect of construction metals
4. Reaction of acids with paper and metal parts
5. Sludge
CONTAMINATION BY GASES
1. Gases those dissolve in oil from atmosphere
2. Gases those are generated due to various reactions
 TESTS ON TRANSFORMER OIL
TESTS ON TRANSFORMER OIL
A. PHYSICAL TEST
• A-l. PHYSICAL TEST: Appearance
The oil shall be clear, transparent and free from suspended matter
In appearance if colour of oil is
a) Light - indicates degree of refining
b) Cloudy or foggy - Presence of moisture
c) Greenish tinge - Presence of copper salts
d) Acid smell - Presence of volatile acid can cause corrosion

A-2. PHYSICAL TEST: Density

Measure by hydrometer or density bottle
Varies within range of 0.85 to 0.89. Higher density results in higher viscosity affects
heat dissipation characteristics of oil

A-3. PHYSICAL TEST: Viscosity

Is a measure of its resistance to continuous flow without the effect of external forces
Prescribes maximum limit 27 Cst at 27° C. Viscosities of lower value is preferred.
A-4. PHYSICAL TEST: Pour Point
Is the lowest temperature at which oil will just flow. An indication of minimum
temperature of operation
Pour point below the lowest temperature is preferred - 6 C

A-5. PHYSICAL TEST: Flash Point

The minimum temperature to which the oil must be heated to give enough Vapour
which can form a combustible mixture with air.
Flash point of 140° C to 150° C is minimum specified for good oil.
Flash point for oil in use is 125° C minimum. So flash point determines the fire
Hazards

A-6. PHYSICAL TEST: Interface Tension

Is the measure of resultant molecular attractive force between unlike molecules like
water and oil at the interface.
Minimum value 40 dynes/M or 0.04 N/M
For oil in use minimum value is 0.0018 N/M is a measure of contaminants in oil.
 . CHEMICAL TESTS

B-l. CHEMICAL TESTS: Neutralization Number

Is the determination of acidic constituents in the insulating oils.
Limits for fresh oil - 0.03 mg KOH/gm - maximum
Limits for used oil - 0.05 mg KOH/gm - maximum
It leads to formation of sludge, metal surface corrosion and lowering of dielectric
strength.

B-2. CHEMICAL TESTS: Corrosive Sulphur

It indicates the presence sulphur, sulphur compounds, which are corrosive in
nature and corrode the copper surface.
B-3. CHEMICAL TESTS: Oxidation Stability
Covers the evaluation of acid and sludge forming tendency of new mineral oils. For
used oil should be minimum to minimize electrical conduction and corrosion

B-4. CHEMICAL TESTS: Water Content

By moisture entry into oil.
a) By accidental leakage
b) Breathing action
c) During oil filling or topping up
d) By chemical reaction
In unused oil - Maximum 30 ppm
Oil is in transformer 145 KV & above - Maximum 15 ppm
Oils in transformers 145 KV & below - Maximum 25 ppm
It reduces electrical strength and promotes degradation of oil as well as paper.
 ELECTRICAL TESTS
C-l. ELECTRICAL TESTS: Electrical Strength
Is the voltage at which arc discharge occurs between two electrodes with 2.5 mm gap. New oil
unfiltered - 30 KV minimum (rms) New oil filtered - 60 KV minimum (rms)
Before energizing new transformers as per
Below 72.5 KV equipments - 40 KV Mini (rms)
Above 72.5 KV less than 145 KV - 50 KV Minimum (rms)
Above 145 KV - 60 KV Minimum (rms)

C-2. ELECTRICAL TESTS - Dielectric Dissipation Factor (Tan Delta & Loss Tangent)
Dissipation factor: Power loss in dielectric/apparent power (Volt Amp)
Voltage and resulting current deviates from II radians.
Is measure of dielectric losses in oil & hence the amount of heat energy dissipated.
1) Tan delta at 90° for unused oil - maximum 0.2
2) Tan delta at 90° oil before charging transformer - maximum 0.05
3) Tan delta at 90° for oil above 145 KV - maximum 0.2
4) Tan delta at 90° for oil below 145 KV - maximum 1.0
Low value of tan delta indicates low losses.

C-3. ELECTRICAL TESTS: Resistivity

Provides a sensitive method of determining the conducting impurities. It affects the electrical
losses & causes deterioration of oil equipment failure.
For unused oil at 27 - 2.5 x 1012 Ohms minimum For unused oil at 90° C - 0.02 x 1012 Ohms
(minimum) For used oil at 90° C - 0.1 x 1012 Ohms (minimum
 POWER SYSTEM OVER VOLTAGES

Power Systems Over voltages

Temporary Over-voltages Switching Over-voltages Over-voltages due to lightning.

 Switching Over-Voltages

• Due to system switching operations

• 1.5 pu – 5 pu depends on system voltage
• mostly damped asymmetric sinusoids
• front time of first peak – tens of s to a few ms.
• decides external insulation in EHV/UHV systems
 Temporary Over-Voltages

• Typically due to faults

• < 1.2 pu
• ms to tens of second or even minutes
• Not dangerous to insulation
 Over Voltages due to Lightning

• Due to ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’ lightning strokes.

• known to contribute to  50% of system outages in EHV &
UHV systems
• few hundred kV to several tens of MV.
• Few kA to 200 kA
• very short duration : time to front : 1 to few tens of s
• time to tail : few tens to hundreds of s.
• Decides line insulation (BIL)
• Severely influences Transformer insulation.
 Design Principles
Impulse Voltage Distribution

Cg
Cs
α = K √ Cg/Cs
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRANSFORMER OIL - IS 335 - 1983
S.N CHARACTERISTICS UNITS LIMIT IS335
1983
1 Appearance - - Clear free of Sediments and
Suspended Matter
2 Density at 27" C g/cm3 max. 0.89
3 Kinematic Viscosity 27 C mm2/s max. 27
4 Flash Point (PM) "C min. 130
5 Pour Point C max. -6
6 Interfacial Tension 27 C N/M min. 0.04
7 Neutralisation Number mgKOH/g max. 0.03
8 Water Content ppm max. 50
9 Corrosion Sulfur - - Non-Corrosive
10 Inhibitor - - Not Present
11 Breakdown Voltage Unfiltered Filtered KV min. 30 60
12 Dielectric Dissipation at 90"C * factor - tan 6 - max. 0.003
13 Resistivity @ 60C/S at 90"C Ohm - cm min. 35xl012
14 Oxidation Test 164 hrs, 100 C a) Neutralisation mgKOH/g max. 0.40 0.10
Number b) Sludge wt% max.
15 Aging Test Ohm-cm min. 0.2 xlO12 0.2 0.05 0.05
ASTM - D - 1934 - 72, 96 hrs 115° C a) mgKOH/g max.
Resistivity at 90° C b)Tan 6 at wt% max.
90° C c) Total Acidity d)Total Sludge max.
TRANSFORMER OIL
SPECIFICATIONS
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS

• NEW OIL:
An unused mineral insulating oils intended to use
in transformers for insulation and cooling
purpose.
• IS-335/1993 – Specification for uninhibited
new insulating oils.
• IS-12463/1988 – Specification for inhibited
mineral insulating oils.
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS

• IEC - 60296/2003 – Specification for unused

mineral insulating oils for transformers and
switchgear. This standard cover both uninhibited
and inhibited oils.
• ASTM – D3487/2000 - Standard Specification for
Mineral Insulating Oil used in Electrical
apparatus. This standard also covers both
uninhibited and inhibited oils.
 Unused Mineral Insulating oils filled in New
transformers

• IS – 1866/2000 – Code of Practice for

Electrical Maintenance and supervision of
Mineral Insulating oil in Equipment.
(Refer Table.1 for limiting values of various
parameters)
• IEC – 60422/1998 – Supervision and
maintenance guide for mineral insulating oils
in electrical equipment.
 In service Mineral Insulating oils:

• IS – 1866/2000 – Code of Practice for

Electrical Maintenance and supervision of
Mineral Insulating oil in Equipment.
(Refer Table.2 for limiting values of various
parameters)
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS
IS-335/1993

• Appearance ------------ • Clear and transparent

• Density at 29.5˚C (Max) • 0.89 g/cm2
• Kinematic Viscosity (Max)
1) at 27˚C ------------------ • 27 cSt
• Under consideration
2) at 40˚C ------------------
• IFT at 27˚C (Min) --------- • 0.04 N/m
• Flash Point (Min) --------- • 140˚C
• Pour Point (Max) --------- • -6˚C
• Neutralization Value
1) total Acidity (Max) ---- • 0.03 mg KOH/gm
• Nil
2) Inorganic acidity ------
• Non-corrosive
• Corrosive Sulphur -------
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS
IS-335/1993

• Electric Strength (BDV)

• 30 KV (rms)
1) New unfiltered Oil (Min)
2) After filtration (Min) • If the above value is not
attained, the oil shall be
filtered to 60 KV (rms)
• Dielectric dissipation factor (tan
δ)at 90˚C(max) • 0.002
• Specific resistance (Resistivity)
1) at 90˚C (Min) • 35 x 1012 ohm-cm
2) at 27˚C (Min) • 1500 x 1012 ohm-cm
• Oxidation Stability
1) Acidity (max) • 0.4 mg KOH/gm
2) total sludge (max) • 0.1 % by weight
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS
IS-335/1993

• Ageing characteristics
a) Resistivity (Min)
1) at 27˚C • 2.5 x 1012 ohm-cm
2) at 90˚C • 0.2 x 1012 ohm-cm
b) Tanδ at 90˚C (Max) • 0.20
c) Total acidity (Max) • 0.05 mg KOH/gm
d) Total sludge (Max) • 0.05 % by weight
• Presence of Oxidation inhibitor • The oil shall contain natural anti
oxidant additives.
• Water content • 50 ppm
• SK value • Under consideration
 IS-1866/2000-Recommended Limits of Unused
Mineral Oil filled in New Transformer

Property Highest voltage of Equipment (KV)

<72.5 72.5-170 >170

Appearance Clear, Free from sediment and suspended matter

Density at 29.5˚C (g/cm2),Max 0.89 0.89 0.89
Viscosity at 27˚C (cSt),Max 27 27 27
Flash Point (˚C),Min 140 140 140
Pour Point (˚C),Max -6 -6 -6
Total acidity(mgKOH/gm),Max 0.03 0.03 0.03
Water content (ppm), Max 20 15 10
IFT at 27˚C (mN/m),Min 35 35 35
Tanδ at 90˚C, Max 0.015 0.015 0.010
Resistivity at 90˚C(x10e12ohm-cm),Min 6 6 6

BDV (KV),Min 40 50 60
 IS-1866/2000-Violation Limits for in service oils

Property Highest voltage of Equipment (KV)

<72.5 72.5-170 >170
Appearance Clear and without visual contaminations
Water content (ppm), Max No Free water 40 20
BDV (KV),Min 30 40 50
Total acidity (mgKOH/gm),Max 0. 3 0. 3 0. 3
IFT at 27˚C (mN/m),Min 15 15 15
Resistivity at 27˚C(x10e12ohm-cm),Min 1 1 1
Resistivity at 90˚C(x10e12ohm-cm),Min 0.1 0.1 0.1
Tanδ at 90˚C, Max 1.0 1.0 0.2
Flash Point (˚C) Min Maximum decrease of 15˚C from initial value
Sediment and sludge No sediment or precipitable sludge should be detected.
Results below 0.02% by mass may be neglected.
 IS-1866/2000-Frequency of testing

Property Frequency of testing

Appearance In conjunction with other Quantitative tests

Water content After filling or refilling prior to energizing, then after

three and 12 months, subsequently along with DGA

BDV After filling or refilling prior to energizing, then yearly

Total acidity Yearly

IFT After filling or refilling prior to energizing, then yearly

Resistivity After filling or refilling prior to energizing, then yearly

Tan δ After filling or refilling prior to energizing, then yearly

Flash Point Yearly

Sediment and sludge Yearly

 IS-1866/2000-Recommended Actions

Property Recommended Actions

Appearance As dictated by other tests

Water content Check Source of water and consider reconditioning

BDV Recondition the oil or alternatively, if more

economical or other tests dictate replace oil

Total acidity Replace or reclaim oil

IFT Replace or reclaim oil
Resistivity Replace or reclaim oil

Tanδ Replace or reclaim oil

Flash Point Replace the oil, equipment may require inspection

Sediment and sludge Where sediment is detected recondition the oil

 IS-1866/2000-Classification of oils in service.

• Group 1:

This group contains oils that are in satisfactory

condition for continued use. The frequency
can be followed as described earlier.
 IS-1866/2000-Classification of oils in service.

• Group 2:

This group contains oils that requires

reconditioning for further service. (Low BDV
and High water content). The frequency can
be followed as described earlier after
reconditioning.
 IS-1866/2000-Classification of oils in service.

• Group 4:

This group contains oils, in such poor state that

it is technically advisable to dispose of them.
 IS-1866/2000-Classification of oils in service.

• Group 3:

This group contains oils in poor condition that

it can restore satisfactory properties only after
reclaiming. Insulating oils this group should be
reclaimed or replaced depending on economic
considerations.
 TRANSFORMER OIL SPECIFICATIONS
IEC -60296 – General Specification

• Functional Properties:
Viscosity, Pour point, Water content, BDV, Density,
Tanδ.
• Stability Properties:
Appearance, Acidity, IFT, corrosive Sulfur, Antioxidant
additive
• Performance Properties:
Oxidation Stability, Sludge
• HSE Properties(Health,Safety&Environment)
Flash Point, PCB(polychlorinated biphenyl) content,
PCA(polycyclic aromatics) content
RECONDITIONING,
RECLAMATION &
RE-REFINING
•RECONDITIONING (Filtration):

This process eliminates solid particles from

oil, decreases water content and improving
BDV of oil by physical means.

Physical means: High vacuum filter machine

consisting of Filters, Heaters, Vacuum
chambers etc.,

Contd…
 •RECONDITIONING (Filtration):

Application to Electrical Equipments

Direct Purification:
Filtration of new unused oils for the first time
and storing in drums and tankers before filling
the equipments.

Purification by circulation:
Filtration of in service oils for de-gassing, de-
sludging, improving BDV & Water content and
drying out of wet winding.
•RECONDITIONING (Filtration):
Limitations

 This process normally done at sites and

the unit need to be taken out of service.
 This process will be used at site mainly to

improve BDV value of oil and to reduce

water content in oil.
 Also for drying out the unit. (Removing

moisture from wet windings)

 This process can not improve tanδ, IFT

and acidity of oil.

 •RECLAMATION

• This is a process which eliminates soluble and

insoluble contaminants from the oil by
chemical and absorption means
• Fuller’s Earth: A naturally occurring clay is the
material most frequently used for reclaiming
the oils and is least expensive.
• Activated alumina is an efficient absorbent and
may be reactivated.
 •RECLAMATION (Advantages)

 This process can be done at site and the unit need to be

switched off. (Some latest kits are available with on line)
 This process is advantages when tanδ,IFT and acidity are

violating the norms or nearing violating the norms.

 This process may improve all parameters to the near original

values.
 Use full for the state electricity departments as the higher

voltage (132 KV, 220 KV and above) transformer oils can be

reclaminated and filled in 33 KV or less voltage transformers.
 •RECLAMATION (Limitations)

• This process will cause detoriation of

naturally available anti-oxidants in the oil.
• This process will not bring the oil original
Chemical structure back.
• This process is costly due to the cost of main
raw materials like fuller’s earth or Activated
Alumina and their quantity requirement.
 •RE-REFINING:

• The totally deteriorated oils from the units will

be shifted to refinery and will be blended with
feed stocks.
• These oils will be used in low voltage electrical
switchgear, not in transformers
• Not available as regular process, mainly due to
good salvage value of totally deteriorated oils.
 CONCLUSIONS
• At present other than reconditioning of oils at
site no other practice is actively available.
• No successful stories of reclamation is
available for the oils of higher voltage(200 Kv
and above) equipment.
TRANSFORMER OIL FILTRATION

Er. K.V.Surya Prakasa Rao.

Former S.E, AP Transco
OFF LOAD FILTRATION
CERTAIN MEASURES
1. The capacity of the filter used for filtration of the
transformer shall be at least 25% of the Transformer
oil in the Transformer.
2. Before taking up the filtration the transformer shall be
kept idle, at least for 24 hours, so that the moisture
etc., will settle at the bottom.
3. All the radiator valves shall be closed after 24 hours
idling of the transformer.
4. The transformer external surface shall be covered
with insulating material like tarpaulin or with any
other insulating material.
5. The bottom filter valve of the transformer shall be
connected to the inlet of the filter and out let of the
filter shall be connected to the top filter valve of the
transformer.
6. The Transformer oil during the filtration shall be
heated to the temperature of not more than 60 C.
7. High vacuum (rated vacuum) of 760 mm Hg is to be
maintained in the filter.
8. After 48 hours of the filtration the inlet and outlet
valve connections of the filter are to be interchanged,
i.e. Is in let to filter from top of the transformer and
outlet of the filter to the bottom of the transformer.
9. If required the LV of bushings of the transformer are to
be shorted and three phased 415 Volts supply may be
given to HV terminals of the Transformer so that there
is some circulating current in the primary and
secondary of the power transformers to heat up the
winding & core.
10.During filtration once in four hours the IR Values of
the transformer are to be measured and noted along
with oil temperature at the time of the taking
readings.
11.During the filtration the IR values will go down for
few days and then start increasing and attains a
value after which there will not be change in the
values even the filtration is continued further.
12.That shows the moisture is eliminated from the
transformer oil to the extent possible.
13.The open the radiator valves and continue the
filtration until the same IR. values are attained.
14.The BDV of the oils is to be tested and if it is
satisfactory other routine tests on the transformer
are to be carried out and transformer can be taken
into service .
ON LOAD FILTRATION
CERTAIN MEASURES
1. Before starting of on load filtration based on the volume of oil in
the transformer , 2-4 Kilo liters of new transformer oil , duly filtered
and tested shall be made available at site.
2. The filter unit/plant shall be checked and filled with new filtered oil
internal circulation of filter unit shall be carried out at a
temperature of 60° centigrade and at a vacuum of 760 mm.Hg. for
internal cleaning of filter equipment and also for elimination
moisture from filter .
3. Simultaneously the power transformer shall be taken out from
service, kept idle for 24 to 48 Hrs, to settle solid impurities, sludge
etc.
4. Settled dirty oil is to be drained from the bottom drain valve of the
transformer.
5. While draining the oil , the color of the oil is observed, and when
the color of oil coming out from drain valve changes from thick to
lighter side, close the drain valve.
6. Then top up the transformer with new filtered tested
transformer oil to normal level in conservator tank.
7. Routine checks and tests are to be done on the
transformer and put the transformer in to service.
8. Check the filter unit to ensure that oil is available to
normal levels in all the equipment and piping in the
filter unit.
9. Collect oil samples from sampling points of filter unit
and test to ensure proper BDV values.
10. Then connect the filter unit to transformer filter
valves, bottom filter valve transformer to outlet of
filter unit and top filter valve of transformer to inlet of
filter unit.
11. Switch off the heaters in the filter unit when the winding
temperature of transformer is 50 °C or more. Set the thermostat
to 60°C. and ensure its correct operation. Maintain a vacuum of
760 mmHg in the filter unit.
12. Start the filter unit and keep the transformer on on- load
filtration.
13. During filtration test the oil samples collected from transformer
under filteration for BDV twice everyday.
14. The filtration is to be continued until proper BDV values are
achieved.
15. Take out the transformer from service and carry out all the
routine maintenance tests on the transformer and record the
same.
16. Then put the transformer in regular service.
CAUTION:- BEFORE TAKING UP POWERTRANSFORMER FOR
FILTERATION ENSURE THAT SOLID INSULATION OF WINDING IS
NOT DETORIATED.
 CONCLUSIONS
• At present other than reconditioning of oils at
site no other practice is actively available.
• No successful stories of reclamation is
available for higher voltage(200 Kv and
above).
 POWER TRANSFORMERS
 UNDER OBSERVATION ROUND THE CLOCK BY THE
SHIFT OPERATORS.
 PROVIDED WITH AUTOMATIC OPERATED PROTECTIVE
SWITCH GEAR.
 PROVIDED WITH INSTRUMENTS LIKE
THERMOMETERS, LEVEL INDICATORS, PROTECTIVE;
RELAYS LIKE BUCHOLTZ REL.AYS, PRV, VENT PIPE.
 OVERLOADING ON THE TRANSFORMERS IS
CONTROLLED AUTOMATICALLY.
 ON-LOAD TAP CHANGERS ARE PROVIDED TO
MAINTAIN THE - VOLTAGE LEVEES.
 PERIODICAL MAINTENANCE IS DONE AS PER
SCHEDULE
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE ARE NOT FOLLOWED
 H.G. FUSE PROTECTION ON ITV. SIDE, SECTION FUSES
ON L.V. SIDE ARE PROVIDED.
 C.S.P. TRANSFORMERS.ARE PROVIDED WITH H.V.
FUSELINK AND L.T. BREAKERS.
 NO TEMPERATURE INDICATORS, LOW OIL LEVE
SWITCHES. PROTECTIVE RELAYS.
 NO CONTROL ON OVERLOADING OF TRANSFORMERS.
 CONSUMER MEDDLING.
 FAILURE OF TRANSFORMER RESULTS INTO

• INTERRUPTION TO CONSUMERS.
• LOSS OF REVENUE TO POW'ER SUPPLY COMPANIES.
• LOSS OF MATERIALS LIKE TRANSFORMER OIL, WINDING
MATERIALS WHICH EFFECT THE ECONOMY OF THE NATION.
• CRED1TABILITY OF THE SUPPLY COMPANY IS EFFECTED.
• HEAVY EXPENDITURE IN REPAIRING THE TRANSFORMERS.
• THE TRANSFORMERS GET DERATED IN THEIR
• CAPACITY AFTER EVERY REPAIR.
 FAILURE OF POWER TRANSFORMERS

Classification of failures
• Failure in the Magnetic Circuit i.e in cores, yokes & clamping
structure.
• Failure in the windings i.e in the coils, minor insulation and
terminals.
• Failure in the dielectric circuit i.e the coils and major insulation.
• Structural failures.
Failures may be due to
• Manufacturing defects, poor design, faulty material, Bad
workmanship.
• Faulty and abnormal operations including careless drying out &
installation, lack of adequate supervision abnormal transient or
sustained operating conditions.
• Insufficient protection.
 Failure of magnetic circuits

• Failure of insulation of core bolts, causing local short circuit between laminations
produces local eddy currents. Some times these failures may cause charring of
insulation of coils and distort the whole core.
• Failure of insulation between laminations produces large eddy currents effecting
the core & insulation of windings.
• When core clamping bolts are not effectively locked, due to vibrations set up in the
transformers, will weaken core insulation and produce failures similar to those in
(1).
• Presence of minute metallic filling between the laminations produces intense local
eddy currents.
• Due to frequent switching on at higher tap-positions, heavy in rush magnetizing
current associated with high flux density and large electro magnetic forces are
created and windings are strained.
• Higher flux densities produce higher harmonic voltages/currents which have
adverse effect on dielectric strength of coils.
• When the transformers are operated at higher voltages with rated frequency,
higher flux densities are resulted effecting the core.
• In older transformers due to ageing of core plates, materials of lamination may
deteriorate & result in increase in iron loss and rise in temperature of the
transformer. This may result in to damage of coils & sludge formation.
 Failure in the windings:

• Due to Presence of sharp edges on the copper conductors, in high Voltage transformers, if
the transformer vibrates on load or if the windings are subjected to repeated
electromagnetic shocks the sharp edges of adjacent turns will cut through insulation and
result in to inter turn faults.
• A short circuit between turns may results from dislodging of one or more turns of a coil.
• Due improper adjustment of coil supports where adjustable coil clamping is used, proper
fixing of coils are not achieved and during operation of transformers some of the conductors
of the coil will be dislodged.
• Due penetration of moisture in to the insulation of coils, the coils are bound to fail sooner or
later.
• Improper drying out of the transformer at site may cause premature failure.
• When transformers are subjected to more or less rapidly fluctuating loads, the expansion and
contraction of winding conductors alternately increases and decreases mechanical pressures
on insulation between turns. There by windings will be weakened susceptible for failure
when subjected to electric or magnetic shocks.
• Badly made joints between coils may over heat on load and local carbonization of oil may
occur. The heat generated at the joints will be transmitted along winding conductor and
insulation around the conductor will be carbonized and inter turn short do occur.
• Sustained heavy over loads do cause insulation getting brittle and eventually failure of
insulation & short circuit in the windings.
 Failure the insulation

• Entry of moisture in to the transformer oil due to breathing action greatly reduces dielectric
strength of oil and insulation winding causing failure of transformer.
• Prolonged overloading causes deterioration of oil & insulation.
• Dielectrics having different specific permittivity are often used in series and unless their
thicknesses are correctly proportioned they may be subjected to abnormally high dielectric
stresses.
• Solid insulation permittivity 5
• Oil Insulation permittivity 2
• The total voltage across two such dielectrics in series divides up so that the voltages across
equal thicknesses of each are inversely proportional to the permittivity. There fore the
thicknesses of such insulation are to be properly proportioned, So that the voltage across the
each insulation in with in the safe working limit or other wise the dielectric of insulation do
fail one after another, due to corona and overheating.
• Corona may take place from sharp conducting edges or small diameter conductors when the
surface voltage gradient is high.
• Insulating parts, such as cylinders tubes & terminal boards made of compressed paper
bonded with synthetic resin may occasionally have their surfaces contaminated sduring
manufacturing process. These insulations may fail when transformer is in service.
• Narrow oil ducts reduce serviceable life of transformers
MAIN REASONS FOR FAILURE OF DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS
• DEVIATION OF STANDARDS AT THE TIME OF ERECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
AND LT LINES
• NON MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMERS, THEIR STRUCTURES AND
CONNECTED LINES
• MEDDLING BY THE CONSUMERS
• ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
• MANUFACTURING DEFECTS
• IMPROPER REPAIRS TO THE FAILED TRANSFORMERS
 VARIOUS DEFECTS/DAMAGES NOTICED IN FAILED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

• BURNING OF HV COILS
• TOP AND BOTTOM HV COILS DEFORMED
• HV TOP COILS DAMAGED
• BOTTOM HV COILS DAMAGED
• LV COIL TURNS MELTED EVEN EFFECTING CORE PLATES IN SOME CASES
• HV COILS & LV COILS DAMAGED COMPLETELY
• COMPLETE CHARRING OF HV COILS
• MELTING OF LV BUSH RODS
• HV JUMPERS CUT
• LV JUMPERS FUSED
• LV SIDE BUSHINGS CRACKED
• HV SIDE BUSHINGS FLASH OVER
• CARBONISATION OF CONTACTS OF LT CIRCUIT BREAKER IN CSP TRANSFORMER
• LT CIRCUIT BREAKER MECHANISM DAMAGED
• LA S ON CSP TRANSFORMERS ARE DAMAGED
• OIL LEVEL LOW
S. Make & Capacity of Weight Quality of Total Remarks
N Distribution Transformer of Core Oil Weight
o &
Windin
g

1 Kirloskar 100 KVA 560 Kgs 340 Ltrs 1180 Kgs Copper wound conventional
transformer
2 ECE 100KVA 485 Kgs 320 Ltrs 1045 Kgs Copper Wound conventional
transformer
3 HACK 100 KVA BRIDGE 506 Kgs 305 Ltrs 1072 Kgs Copper Wound conventional
transformer
4 STEL 100KVA 230 Kgs 185 Ltrs 650 Kgs Aluminum wound conventional
transformer
5 STEL 100 KVA 260 Kgs 220 Ltrs 700 Kgs Aluminum wound CSP
transformer
6 TE 100 KVS 279 Kgs 240 Ltrs 685 Kgs Aluminum wound CSP
transformer
7 VE 100 KVA 275 Kgs 185 Ltrs 580 Kgs Aluminum wound CSP
transformer
8 VE 100 KVA 270 Kgs 205 Ltrs 595 Kgs Aluminum wound conventional
transformer

9 WEBER 250 KVA 505 Kgs 340 Ltrs 1145 Kgs Aluminum wound conventional
transformer

10 SDE 250 KVA 660 370 Ltrs 1355 kgs Aluminum wound conventional
KGS transformer
 Analysis of Failure of Transformers

S NO Type of Damage Probable cause

1 Top and bottom HV coils damaged Sustained external short circuit of LT

system not cleared by Fuses

2 Inter turn short ( Puncture of coils Insulation is poor absorption of

moisture by insulation *bad breather)
3 Insulation of all the three phases brittle Continuous overloading

4 LV star point cut Poor earthing with unbalanced Loading

5 LV coils damaged Continuous overloading, repeated test

charging on fault
6 Top coils in three phase get charred Transformers operated with low oil
level
7 Jumpers cut inside Surge Voltages

8 Moisture deposit on core Bad breathers, entry of atmospheric air

into transformer
 Schedule of Maintenance of Transformers
S. Particulars of Maintenance to be done Periodically
No
1 Checking up of loose connections of HV side at HG fuse LV Monthly
side in the fuse box, at terminations of the transformers
and of jumpering etc
2 Cleaning of Tanks, Bushings etc., Monthly
3 Checking up of oil levels, rectification of oil leaks topping of oil Monthly

4 Checking up of silicagel breathers, replacement / reconditioning Monthly

of silicagel checked up of vent pipe diaphragm

5 Monitoring LT loads currents by taking tong tester readings Quarterly or whenever frequent LT
fuse blowing is observed
6 Checking of complete earthing system at transformer Half yearly
structure/plinth
7 Measurement of IR values of transformer and earth resistance Half yearly
of the structure
8 Testing of oil for dielectric strength Half yearly
9 Acidity testing of the oil Yearly
10 Checking of operation of LT breakers of CSP transformers Monthly
11 Checking of LA s and their connections Quarterly and also before monsoon
sets in
12 Checking of LT lines complete Quarterly and also before monsoon
sets in
 MEASURES FOR REDUCTION OF FAILURE OF TRANSFORMERS

1. At District/Division Level inventory of frequent failed transformers as well as location where

frequent failure of transformers occurred have to be made duly ascertaining the damages
and reasons for failures. These particulars are to be computerised giving the location code
numbers to the locations and population code number to the transformers
2. The Head of the Division has to arrange necessary materials for rectification if transformer is
found to have failed due to defective structure, lines and ensure defects are rectified before
another transformer is erected in that location.
3. If Transformer has found to be failed due to continuous overloading necessary improvement
incapacity or additional transformers are to be arranged by division or District level
authorities.
4. At Head quarter office the performance of various companies transformers as well as
performance of repairers are to be computerised and the companies whose transformers
are giving good service are to be entertained in further assignments
5. Fortnightly review of failure of transformers of each section is to be carried out and
compared with previous figures and the failures of the transformers are to be minimized by
putting the efforts by all the concerned. As a one time basis all the distribution transformers
connected lines are to be checked up and rectified as detailed in the enclosed guidelines
Guide Lines of Erection of Power
Transformers in 33/11KV Sub
Stations

Er K.V.Surya Prakasa Rao.

Former S.E./AP Transco .
 The erection of Power Transformers comprises of following Works :

• Unloading of Transformer form Tractor Trailer/Lorry at the

Sub Station.
• Stacking aside wherever the Power Transformer plinth etc
are not ready.
• Moving the transformer on to plinth
• Assembly of all the mounting , accessories etc.,
• Filling and topping up of transformer oil
• Oil circulation through filter if required.
• Earthing
• Jumpering
 The erection of Power Transformers comprises of following Works :

• Unloading of Transformer form Tractor Trailer/Lorry at the

Sub Station.
• Stacking aside wherever the Power Transformer plinth etc
are not ready.
• Moving the transformer on to plinth
• Assembly of all the mounting , accessories etc.,
• Filling and topping up of transformer oil
• Oil circulation through filter if required.
• Earthing
• Jumpering
 – Unloading of Transformer form Tractor Trailer/Lorry at the Sub
Station :. Generally the higher capacity Power Transformers are sent
from the manufacturer duly dismantling, conservator tank
Radiators, Piping etc. in either tractor trailor or lorry. For unloading
the main tank from the vehicle we may use a suitable crane or do
manually. When manual unloading is done, the following T & P and
equipment are required.

• Wooden Sleepers 8’ to 12’ length, 12” width, 6” or 8” thick– 40 Nos

• 10 Ton tirfur with rope -1
• 20 ton winch with rope -1
• 5 Ton Chain Pulley block -1
• 2 Ton Chain Pulley block -1
• Hydraulic Jacks 10 Tons Capacity - 4 Nos
• Wire rope – ¾” size - 20 Mtrs
• Manila rope of different sizes & lengths
• Crow Bars
• Rail Poles minimum 20 ft length - 4 Nos
• General T & P
• Wooden Packing pieces ¼”, ½” ,1”, 1 ½” , 2”, 4” thick – Set
1. Keep two jacks under jack pads of transformers along the top sleeper ( Which is be removed one jack
each on either and of sleeper)
2. Operate the Jacks so that lifting pad of jacks are tightly positioned under transformer jack pads
3. Now slowly pressurize jacks equally on both sides simultaneously so that one side of the transformer
tank is raised slightly to enable to draw out the sleeper.
4. Now Place the wooden packing pieces one over the other by the sides of Jacks up to jack height
5. Now remove the sleeper slowly with out hitting the jacks
6. Slowly lower the transformer tank, by releasing pressure in jacks slowly (both simultaneously) and
removing the packing pieces one after another
7. Now remove the Jacks, when the side of transformer is securely resting on the next bottom sleepers
8. Now place the jacks on the other side of the power transformer tank and carry pout above operation
and remove other side sleeper also.
9. After the transformer tank lowered to the height of one sleeper height, then sleepers are to be
placed along the rout to the plinth on which PTR is to be erected.
10. ON the sleepers rail poles are to be kept duly inserting under the tank and transformer tank is to be
dragged close to the plinth.
11. After dragging the transformer tank nearer to plinth the transformer tank is to be raised to the level
slightly above the plinth top level by using sleepers & Hydraulic jack
12. Then the Power Transformer tank is to be dragged on to the plinth slowly with the help of rail poles
and winch tirfor.
13. When the transformer tank is correctly positioned placed on the plinth further work is to be taken
up.
• Filling /toping Up of oil : Now New filtered tested Transformer
oil is to be filled in to transformer through suitable clean
pump & pipes slowly through one of the top valves while
filling oil slowly open bottom valve and air releasing dummy
of one radiator. When oil is filled up to top of radiator then
close the air releasing dummy immediately open top valve of
radiator. In the same way all the radiators are to be filled and
conservator tank is filled up to 50% level approximately.
• Then release the air once from all air releasing points.
• Checkup oil level in the OLTC unit
• Then earthing and jumpering is to be done as per standards.
• Filling /toping Up of oil : Now New filtered tested Transformer
oil is to be filled in to transformer through suitable clean
pump & pipes slowly through one of the top valves while
filling oil slowly open bottom valve and air releasing dummy
of one radiator. When oil is filled up to top of radiator then
close the air releasing dummy immediately open top valve of
radiator. In the same way all the radiators are to be filled and
conservator tank is filled up to 50% level approximately.
• Then release the air once from all air releasing points.
• Checkup oil level in the OLTC unit
• Then earthing and jumpering is to be done as per standards.
Guide lines for erection of EHT
Transformers
After completing all contractual obligatory tests at
works, transformer/reactor is made ready for despatch.
When transport conditions permit, transformers are
despatched in any of the following conditions

• Fully assembled including fittings

• Assembled without fittings, with inert gas

(preferably dry nitrogen)

• Assembled without fittings, with oil filled upto top

yoke level

• Partially assembled job for site assembly.

 The various packages must also be checked. Internal
inspection should be carried out to the extent possible
through inspection covers. Particular attention should be
paid to the connections, bolts, links, coil clamping bolts,
tapchangers, current transformers and the general
insulation.

Breakdown strength of oil of transformer tank

(when the transformer is dispatched filled with oil) and
drums containing transformer oil (which have been
dispatched separately) should be examined carefully.
 In a great majority of the cases accessories like
radiators, bushings, explosion vent/ pressure relief valve,
dehydrating breather, rollers, Buchholz relay, conservator,
pipe work, marshalling box are dispatched separately.
Transformer oil (if it is included in the order) is sent in
separate sealed drums/ tankers. When transformers are
dispatched with inert gas, positive pressure must be
maintained throughout the period till gas is replaced by
oil.
Inspection upon Arrival at site
Immediately after transformer is received at site, it
should be thoroughly examined externally for any possible
damage which might have occurred during transit.
Nitrogen gas pressure (When filled during dispatch) should
be checked . Positive pressure if not found indicates that
there is a leakage, and there is a possibility of the moisture
entering the tank during transit. This can be ascertained
by measuring the dew point. The dew point measurement
indicates the amount of surface moisture content in
transformer insulation. As the insulation temperature and
transformer gas pressure vary, the acceptable dew point
will vary.
 The various packages must also be checked. Internal
inspection should be carried out to the extent possible
through inspection covers. Particular attention should be
paid to the connections, bolts, links, coil clamping bolts,
tapchangers, current transformers and the general
insulation.

Breakdown strength of oil of transformer tank

(when the transformer is dispatched filled with oil) and
drums containing transformer oil (which have been
dispatched separately) should be examined carefully.
 The various packages must also be checked. Internal
inspection should be carried out to the extent possible
through inspection covers. Particular attention should be
paid to the connections, bolts, links, coil clamping bolts,
tapchangers, current transformers and the general
insulation.

Breakdown strength of oil of transformer tank

(when the transformer is dispatched filled with oil) and
drums containing transformer oil (which have been
dispatched separately) should be examined carefully.
HANDLING
Following means are normally used for lifting operations
• Overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
• Jib crane
• Derricks
• Jacks and winches

The overhead travelling crane and jib cranes are obviously the
most convenient and safe means. Precautions mentioned below must
be adhered to:

• Transformer (main package) should be lifted only through

lifting points provided for attaching the slings.

• Cover must always be bolted in position.

• Transformer should be jacked up using the jacking pads
specially provided for that purpose. Jack should never be
placed under any valves.
Installation
Following precautions should be taken before taking up erection

• Person going inside a transformer must wear clean clothes and

clean synthetic – rubber- soled sandals or boots.
• Never stand directly on any part of the insulation.
• No one should be allowed on top of the transformer, unless he
has emptied his pockets.
• All the tools and spanners used for erection should be securely
tied with taps so that these could be recovered if dropped in, by
accident.
• All components should be carefully cleaned outside separately,
before erecting.
Installation
Following precautions should be taken before taking up erection

• Person going inside a transformer must wear clean clothes and

clean synthetic – rubber- soled sandals or boots.
• Never stand directly on any part of the insulation.
• No one should be allowed on top of the transformer, unless he
has emptied his pockets.
• All the tools and spanners used for erection should be securely
tied with taps so that these could be recovered if dropped in, by
accident.
• All components should be carefully cleaned outside separately,
before erecting.
Fibrous material should not be used for cleaning . The
presence of suspended fibrous material will reduce the
electrical properties of transformer oil.

• Interior of the transformer should not the exposed to

damp atmosphere as far as possible, to avoid
condensation. In the event of a sudden change in the
weather bringing rain or snow, provision must be
made for closing the tank quickly and pressurizing it
with nitrogen so as to preserve the insulation.

• Naked lights and flame should never be used near oil

filled transformer. Smoking must not be allowed on
the transformer cover when the cover plates are
open, nor in the vicinity of oil processing plant.

• Never allow any one to enter the transformer if

adequate supply of air in the tank is not available.
Location and site Preparation

No special foundation is necessary for the

installation of a transformer except a level floor strong
enough to support the weight and prevent accumulation of
water. Foundation incorporation special on drainage
facilities during fire and emergency is recommended for
large transformers. Transformers should be placed on the
foundation so that easy access is available all around and
diagram plates, thermometers, valves, oil gauges oil
gauges etc. can be easily reached or read. Adequate
electrical clearances are also to be provided from various
line points of the transformer to earthed parts.
 Type “ ONAN” transformer depends entirely upon
the surrounding air for carrying away the heat generated
due to losses. For indoor installation, therefore, the room
must be well ventilated so that the heated air can escape
easily and be replaced by cool air. Air inlets and outlets as
high as the building allows. Where necessary, exhaust fans
can be installed for the purpose. The transformer should
always be separated from one another and from all walls
and partitions to permit free circulation of air.
 Type “ ONAN” transformer depends entirely upon
the surrounding air for carrying away the heat generated
due to losses. For indoor installation, therefore, the room
must be well ventilated so that the heated air can escape
easily and be replaced by cool air. Air inlets and outlets as
high as the building allows. Where necessary, exhaust fans
can be installed for the purpose. The transformer should
always be separated from one another and from all walls
and partitions to permit free circulation of air.
 Where rollers are not fitted, level concrete plinth
with bearing plates of sufficient size and strength can be
adopted for outdoor transformers. The formation of rust,
due to the presence of air and water in the space between
the plinth and the base of the transformer should be
prevented by use of rust preventive bituminous compound.
Where rollers are fitted, suitable rails or tracks should be
used and the wheels should be locked to prevent
accidental movement of the transformer.

Bushing should be lifted properly as shown in Fig.1

Mounting of stress shield must be properly checked as per
drawing and placed accordingly. Lead should be pulled
slowly so that joints should not give way.
Special Precautions for Installing 245 kV Re- entrant Type
Bushing

The special feature of this bushing is the re-entrant control at

the oil end which is brought about by special arrangement of
condenser layers. Starting from the earth foil, the limiting area of foil
ends in conformity with regular constructional principle form a core
oriented away from the flange. At about two-third of the voltage
between flange and tube, the foil ends are reversed and follow a course
of core reverting towards the flange and goes as far as the conductor
tube. The re-entrant control has the following advances:

• The lower end is shorter than the conventional ends.

• Orifice of the lower end has a larger diameter and makes

possible introduction of thick insulated cable.

• Stress shield is avoided.

Special Precautions for Installing 245 kV Re- entrant Type
Bushing

The special feature of this bushing is the re-entrant control at

the oil end which is brought about by special arrangement of
condenser layers. Starting from the earth foil, the limiting area of foil
ends in conformity with regular constructional principle form a core
oriented away from the flange. At about two-third of the voltage
between flange and tube, the foil ends are reversed and follow a course
of core reverting towards the flange and goes as far as the conductor
tube. The re-entrant control has the following advances:

• The lower end is shorter than the conventional ends.

• Orifice of the lower end has a larger diameter and makes

possible introduction of thick insulated cable.

• Stress shield is avoided.

 Oil Filling
Before filling with oil, transformer should be fitted
with all accessories, such as valves, plugs, and made oil
tight. The oil which is to be filled in transformer must be
in line with the recommendations. If not, it must be
filtered with stream line filters with built- in heaters and
vacuum pumps for improving the quality of oil. During oil
filling operation, it should be ensured that no air pockets
are left in the tank and no dust or moisture enters the oil
and it should be warmer than surrounding air.
 For transformers dispatched gas filled, the filling of
oil inside the tank should always be done under vacuum.
While evacuating the transformer tank, care should be
taken to ensure that Bakelite cylinders, panels, etc. are not
subjected to pressure. The vacuum should be maintained
for a short time after the tank is filled with oil.

The vacuum pulling in the tank will protect the

windings against exposure to atmosphere at the time of
erection of bushings, etc.
Following precautions should be taken during this
operation:

• Oil is easily contaminated. It is very important, when sampling

the oil and filling the tank, to keep the oil free from
contamination.

• All equipment used for handling the oil should be cleaned and
flushed with clean transformer oil before use ( the oil used for
washing must be discarded). Particular attention should be paid
to the cleanliness of bungs, valves and other parts where dirt or
moisture tends to collect.

• For sampling, glass containers with glass stoppers are to be

free from contamination, dirt, etc. Cleanliness is essential as
even small amount of dirt and water will affect the accuracy
of test results. Wax should not be used for sealing the oil
sample bottles. However, the stopper can be covered by a pack of
silicagel tied in a piece of cloth.
• Flexible steel hose is recommended for handling
insulating oil. Some kind of synthetic rubber or
PVC hoses are also suitable, but only those know
to be satisfactory, should be purpose, as oil
dissolves the sulphur from the rubber and is
thereby contaminated.
Hose used for handing oil should be clean and free
from loose rust or scales.

• Transformer must always be disconnected from the

electricity supply system before the oil level in the
tank is lowered.

• Oil must not be emptied near naked lights as the

vapour released is inflammable.
 Drying of transformers

Drying of transformer is necessary in case insulation has

absorbed moisture.

The process of drying out a transformer is one

requiring care and good judgment. If the drying out
process is improperly performed, great damage may
result to the transformer insulation through overheating,
etc. A properly dried out and correctly installed
transformer is one of the most reliable electrical
appliances. In no case should a transformer be left
unattended during any part of the dry-out period;
transformer should be carefully watched throughout the
dry-out process and all observations should be recorded
properly.
 Drying of transformers

Drying of transformer is necessary in case insulation has

absorbed moisture.

The process of drying out a transformer is one

requiring care and good judgment. If the drying out
process is improperly performed, great damage may
result to the transformer insulation through overheating,
etc. A properly dried out and correctly installed
transformer is one of the most reliable electrical
appliances. In no case should a transformer be left
unattended during any part of the dry-out period;
transformer should be carefully watched throughout the
dry-out process and all observations should be recorded
properly.
 Drying of core and coils using oven
Where a suitable oven is a available, the core and coils can
be effectively dried in it by raising the temperature to a
level not exceeding 800 C. A large volume of air should
pass through the oven to remove moisture and vapours.
Insulation resistance check will indicated when the coil
are dry.
Core and coils can also be dried in its own tank in an oven.
Transformer tank should be suitable for full vacuum (Low
vacuum for low about 750 C is maintained. Dry nitrogen is
used for breathing the vacuum.
Drying by short- Circuit Method
The transformer can also be dried by heating the
coils by short-circuiting the low voltage winding and
supplying a reduced voltage at high voltage terminals.
Current should not exceed 70% of normal rated current and
oil temperature should be of the order of 750C. Winding
temperature should in no case exceed 900C/ The winding
temperature can be monitored by measuring winding
resistance. This method is more effective in drying the
insulation at site.
Drying out by streamline filter machine
The most practical method of drying out is by
circulation of hot oil through streamline filter machine
incorporating oil heater and vacuum chamber. The vacuum
pump of the filter machine should have the capacity of
creating vacuum as high as possible but not less than 710
mm of mercury. Drying out process can be made faster by
creating vacuum in the transformer tank by lagging the
transformer tank to prevent loss of heat. The oil
temperature in transformer should be of the order of 750C.
Drying out by streamline filter machine
The most practical method of drying out is by
circulation of hot oil through streamline filter machine
incorporating oil heater and vacuum chamber. The vacuum
pump of the filter machine should have the capacity of
creating vacuum as high as possible but not less than 710
mm of mercury. Drying out process can be made faster by
creating vacuum in the transformer tank by lagging the
transformer tank to prevent loss of heat. The oil
temperature in transformer should be of the order of 750C.
 It should be seen that the oil temperature at
the filter machine in no case exceeds 850 C.

Drying process can be terminated when

transformer oil characteristics are achieved with
in permissible limits and insulation resistance of
winding shows a constant or rising trend.
Commissioning

Transformer must be healthy in all respects

before energizing and, therefore, it should be
thoroughly checked before commissioning.
Commissioning

Transformer must be healthy in all respects

before energizing and, therefore, it should be
thoroughly checked before commissioning.
Following checks should be carried out.

Transformer
Measurements

Measurement of ratio, resistance, vector group and

magnetizing current should be of the order of works’ test
results. BDV and water oil results should be within the
permissible limits as mentioned in Appendix A1 of IEC
422 have also to be measured.
Observations
Bushing CT polarity, silicagel breather, earthing, bushing
arching horn, valves, etc. must be checked for their
correctness.

Protection
Buchholz relay, oil temperature, winding temperature,
pressure relief device, magnetic oil level gauge, differential
over current, earth fault, etc. Protection scheme should be
checked for proper functioning.
Tapchanger
Manually, electrical (local and remote), parallel
operations. IR value of motor and control wiring to be
checked.

Marshalling Box
All control wiring should be checked.

When all the above checks have been done, a

settling time of approximately 24 hr should be given to oil
before charging the transformer. During this interval of
setting, air should be released six hourly wherever
possible. Voltage should be slowly built up to full level in
around four to six hours wherever possible.
Maintenance
If a transformer is to give long and trouble –free service,
it should receive a reasonable amount of attention and
maintenance. The principal object of maintenance is to
maintain the insulation in good condition. Moisture, dirt
and excessive heat are the main cause of insulation
deterioration . Maintenance consists of regular inspection,
testing and reconditioning ,wherever necessary.

Load voltage, load current, temperature of winding , oil

and ambient should be recorded daily. Various fittings/
accessories like silicagel breather, bushing, tapchanger,
fan pump, oil in tank, tapchanger bushing, Buchholz
relay, etc., should be checked periodically as per
recommendation.
Maintenance
If a transformer is to give long and trouble –free service,
it should receive a reasonable amount of attention and
maintenance. The principal object of maintenance is to
maintain the insulation in good condition. Moisture, dirt
and excessive heat are the main cause of insulation
deterioration . Maintenance consists of regular inspection,
testing and reconditioning ,wherever necessary.

Load voltage, load current, temperature of winding , oil

and ambient should be recorded daily. Various fittings/
accessories like silicagel breather, bushing, tapchanger,
fan pump, oil in tank, tapchanger bushing, Buchholz
relay, etc., should be checked periodically as per
recommendation.
Reconditioning Procedure of Condenser Bushing
(S.R.B.P. Type)
In case moisture is found in the bushing, the oil of the
bushing is drained through drain plug. Two nylon tubes of suitable
diameter are connected to an oil filtering plant, through suitable
adaptation. The outlet tube from filter to be connected to the drain
plug and the inlet tube of the filter to be submerged in oil at the top.
The filtered hot oil should be circulated through bushing for three
days by injecting it at the bottom and sucking from the top. This not
only improves the oil quality but also dries out the bushing
insulation . During the entire period of circulation, the bushing top
must be covered so that no foreign matter can enter the bushing.
After the reconditioning, the IR value of the bushing and dielectric
strength of oil should be in line with the recommendations.
Reconditioning Procedure of Condenser Bushing
(S.R.B.P. Type)
In case moisture is found in the bushing, the oil of the
bushing is drained through drain plug. Two nylon tubes of suitable
diameter are connected to an oil filtering plant, through suitable
adaptation. The outlet tube from filter to be connected to the drain
plug and the inlet tube of the filter to be submerged in oil at the top.
The filtered hot oil should be circulated through bushing for three
days by injecting it at the bottom and sucking from the top. This not
only improves the oil quality but also dries out the bushing
insulation . During the entire period of circulation, the bushing top
must be covered so that no foreign matter can enter the bushing.
After the reconditioning, the IR value of the bushing and dielectric
strength of oil should be in line with the recommendations.
Analysis of Gases as a Means of Monitoring
Transformers and Detecting Incipient Fault
Gases are produced in a transformer when
transformer oil is subjected to high electrical or thermal
stresses or due to breakdown of other insulation materials.
These gases get dissolved in oil and if produced in
substantial quantities, it may get collected in Buchholz
relay. Analysis of these gases, together with the rate of
their formation makes it possible to estimate the nature
and seriousness of the fault.
The gas in Buchholz relay will, general , be due to one of
following three main causes:

a. Air introduced because of mechanical fault in the

oil system or in some ancillary equipment.

b. Gas produced by thermal or electrical breakdown of

oil without damage to any solid insulants.

c. Gas produced by a thermal or electrical breakdown

of solid insulants which invariable includes the
breakdown of oil.
 It should, however, be kept in mind that one
of the primary objects of fitting a Buchholz relay is
to detect faults in their incipient stage and care
should be exercised in interpreting the analysis
results together with all other available data, to
ensure that re-energizing the transformer does not
cause an incipient fault to develop into a major
fault.
 It should, however, be kept in mind that one
of the primary objects of fitting a Buchholz relay is
to detect faults in their incipient stage and care
should be exercised in interpreting the analysis
results together with all other available data, to
ensure that re-energizing the transformer does not
cause an incipient fault to develop into a major
fault.
 In the event of low energy faults with only slight
gas evolution, and in view of the fact that the oil
solubility of the gases of decomposition may be very high,
the detection of such gradual process is delayed, because
the Buchholz relay does not respond until a sufficient
volume of gas is collected. Further, because of the
different solubility of the various gas constituents and the
partial exchange with other gases dissolved in the oil,
e.g. nitrogen or air, the composition of gas mixture that is
collected in the Buchholz relay differs from that at the
point of origin. It is, therefore, hardly possible to obtain
correct diagnosis of the nature of such an incipient fault
by simply analyzing the gas collected in the Buchholz
relay. A complete and reliable explanation of the faults
can only be obtained by supplementing the gas analysis
of the Buchholz relay by an analysis of the gases
dissolved in the oil.
 An analysis of the gas dissolved in the oil is possible
by means of gas chromatography, which determines the
individual constituents of such gas mixture with a high
degree of accuracy. IEC 599 Interpretation of the analysis
of gas in transformers and other oil filled electrical
equipment in service may be referred to for this analysis.
A comparison between the gases accumulated in the
Buchholz relay and those dissolved in the oil can be very
useful in diagnosing the nature and severity of the
particular fault.
Dos for Power Transformer
1. Connect gas cylinder with automatic regulator if transformer
is to be stored for long duration, in order to maintain positive
pressure.
2. Fill the oil in the transformer at the earliest opportunity at
site and follow storage instructions. It must be commissioned
as soon as possible.
3. Open the equalizing valve between tank and OLTC diverter
compartment, whenever provided , at the time of filling the oil
in the tank and close the same during operation.
4. Clean the oil conservator thoroughly before erecting.
5. Check the pointers of all gauges for their free movement
before erection.
6. Inspect the painting and if necessary do retouching.
7. If inspection covers are opened or any gasket joint is
tightened, tighten the bolts evenly with the proper sequence
to avoid uneven pressure.
8. Clean the Buchholz relay and check the operation of
alarm and trip contacts.
9. Check the oil level in oil cup and ensure that the air
passages are free in the breather. If oil is less, make
up the oil level.
10. Check the oil in transformer and OLTC for dielectric
strength and moisture content, and take suitable
action for restoring the quality of oil.
11. Attend to leakages on the bushing immediately.
12. Check the diaphragm of the relief vent. If cracked or
broken, replace it.
13. Remove the air from vent plug of the diverter switch
before energizing the transformer.
14. Check the gear box oil level in the tapchanger. If
less, top up with specified oil.
15. Check the OTI and WTI pockets and replenish the oil, top up
with fresh oil.

16. Check the oil level in the diverter switch and if found less, top
up with fresh oil.

17. Examine the diverter and selector contacts of tapchanger and

if found burnt or worn out, replace the same.

18. Check and thoroughly investigate the transformer whenever

any alarm or protection is operated.
19. Examine the bushings for dirt deposits and coats and clean
them periodically.
20. Check the protection circuits periodically.
21. Check all bearings and operating mechanism of the
tapchanger and lubricate them as per schedule.
22. Keep the valve connected between conservator of the tap-
changer and its diverter compartment open, during
transformer operation.
23. check the silicagel charge. If it is found pink, regenerate or
replace it with blue silicagel charge.
Don’ts for Power Transformers
1. Do not use low capacity lifting jacks on transformer
for jacking.

2. Do not allow WTI, OTI temperature to exceed 750C

during dryout of transformer, and filter machine
temperature beyond 850C.

3. Do not re-energize the transformer, unless the

Buchholz gas is analyzed.

4. Do not re-energize the transformer without

conducting all pre-commissioning checks.

5. Do not energize the transformer, unless the off-circuit

tap switch handle is in locked position.
6. Do not leave off-circuit tap switch handle unlocked.
7. Do not leave tertiary terminals unprotected outside
the tank. Follow manufacturer’s recommendations in
this regard.

8. Do not leave marshalling box doors open. They must

be locked.

9. Do not leave any connection loose.

10. Do not meddle with the protection circuits.

11. Do not leave maximum temperature indicating

pointer behind the other pointer In OTI and WTI.

12. Do not change the settings of WTI and OTI alarm

and trip frequently. The setting should be done as
per the site conditions.
13. Do not allow oil level in the bushings to fall; they
must immediately be topped up.

14. Do not allow conservator oil level to fall below one-

fourth level.

15. Do not parallel transformers which do not fulfill the

required conditions.

16. Do not switch off the heater in marshalling box

except in summer.

17. Do not leave secondary terminals on an unloaded CT

open.

18. Do not allow water pressure more than oil pressure

in different pressure gauge in OFWF cooled
transformer.
19. Do not switch on water pump unless oil pump is
switched on.

20. Do not leave ladder unlocked, when the transformer

is energized.

21. Do not allow unauthorized entry near the

transformer.

22. Do not overload the transformer other than the

specified limits mentioned in national/international
standards.

23. Do not allow inferior oil to continue than the

specified limits mentioned in national/international
standards.
24. Do not handle the off-circuit tap switch when the
transformers is energized.
Dos and Don’ts for HV Condenser Bushings

Dos:
1. Check the packing externally for possible transit damage before
unpacking.

2. Do unpacking with care to avoid any direct blow on bushing or

porcelain insulator.

3. Store the bushing in a shed or covered with tarpaulin to protect it

from moisture and rains. If removed from the crate, keep it indoors
with lower end protective's intact.

4. Handle the bushing with manila rope slings without any undue
force on porcelain insulator.

5. Clean the porcelain insulator thoroughly.

6. Remove the wax tape protection on the oil end of the bushing
(at the time of erection) and clean the surface with hot
transformer oil.
7. Check the oil level and IR value of the bushing in vertical
position only, taking care that the bushing is cleaned and no
rope or sling etc. is touching the terminal and ground.

8. Check the breakdown value (BDV) of oil taken from drain plug
or siphoning from the bottom – most portion of bushing. This
should not be less than the recommended value.

9. Check the IR value and tan δ value (if possible) with bushing in
position on transformer with jumper connection removed.
Record these readings for reference and guidance for future
measurements.

10. Check BDV of oil and IR value of each bushing periodically

during maintenance shut down. These values should be
comparable with the values recorded at the time of
commissioning.
11. Ensure to allow the air to escape from central tube to the
atmosphere while filling the transformer tank.

12. Maintain the log book records of periodical checks (i.e. tan δ and
BDV of oil) up to date.
Don’ts
1. Do not unpack the bushing from the crate unless required to be
mounted on the transformer.

2. Do not remove the waxed tape protection/metal protective hood

from the oil end portion unless bushing is required for use.

3. Do not store the bushing outdoors without any protective

covering.

4. Do not measure the IR value and tan δ value without

thoroughly cleaning the porcelain and oil end portion.

5. Do not store the bushing without oil in porcelain.

6. Do not keep the top cap cover open for any longer time than
required as it contaminates the oil.

7. Do not tighten the nuts and bolts in excess to stop any leakage,
this could damage the cemented joints on porcelain.
POWER TRANSFORMERS –
STANDARDS OF PROTECTION

K. V. Surya Prakasa Rao.,

Former S.E. (APTransco)
 INTRODUCTION

Power Transformer is one of the most important

links in a power transmission and distribution
system. A Transformer outage will cause a
large interruption in power supplies. The impact
is more serious than a transmission line outage
and may cause damage to power system
stability . As such suitable protection is
essential for the transformers.
Transformer protection falls under two
main categories :

• Protection of the system against the

effects of faults arising inside the
transformer (internal).

• Protection of the transformer against the

effect of faults occurring on any part of
the system (external).
FAULTS INTERNAL TO THE TRANSFORMER

Earth faults
Phase to Phase faults
Inter turn faults
Core faults
Tank faults
 EARTH FAULTS:
In this case, the fault current is controlled
mainly by the leakage reactance of the winding
and generally the currents are of high
magnitude.

PHASE-TO-PHASE FAULTS:
Faults between phases within a transformer are
relatively rare. If such a fault does occur it will
give rise to a substantial current compared to
the earth fault current.
 INTER – TURN FAULTS:
 A high voltage transformer connected to an
overhead transmission system is very likely
to be subjected to steep fronted impulse
voltages. Hence the risk of partial winding
flash over is high. It is opined that 70% to
80% of all transformer failures arise from
faults between turns or inter turn faults.
 A short circuit of a few turns of the winding
will give rise to heavy fault current in the
short-circuited loop, but the impact on
terminal currents will be very small because
of the high ratio of transformation between
the whole windings and the short circuited
turns.
CORE FAULTS:
• If any portion of the core insulation becomes defective, it
will cause sufficient eddy currents to flow, causing severe
over heating, which may reach a magnitude sufficient to
damage the winding.

• The additional core-loss, although causing severe local

heating, will not produce a noticeable change in input
current and can not be detected by normal electrical
protections. However, it is very necessary to detect this
condition before it turns out into a major fault .

• Fortunately, in an oil immersed transformer, the local

heating will cause breakdown of some of the oil with an
accompanying evolution of gas, which will escape to the
conservator through bucholtz relay.
 TANK FAULTS:

 Loss of oil through tank leak, failure of welded

joints etc. may lead to a dangerous condition.

EXTERNAL SYSTEM CONDITIONS:

 Over-load
 System faults (phase to phase/ phase to earth)
 Over voltage
 Reduced system frequency.
OVERLOAD

• Over load causes increased copper loss and a consequent

temperature rise.

• Overloads can not be allowed on present day trnsformers

even for small duration.
• System short circuits produce a relatively intense rate of
heating of the feeding transformers, the copper loss
increasing in proportion to the square of the fault current.

contd..
• Large fault currents produce severe
mechanical stresses in transformers, the
maximum stress occurs during the first cycle
of asymmetric fault current and so cannot be
arrested by automatic tripping of the circuit.

• Hence the control of such stresses is to be

taken care of at the time of design itself.
 System faults (Ph-Ph and Ph-E)

• Transformer needs to be protected from feeding

external phase to phase and phase to ground faults
on connected Transmission system.
• These faults include un cleared faults in 220kV
system and 400kV system. Backup directional
O/C protection is used.
• The protection to be coordinated properly to
operate with a time delay to avoid unwanted
tripping of ICT for external faults.
OVER VOLTAGE

 Over Voltage conditions are of two types:

1. Transient Surge Voltage

 Transient over voltages arise from switching
and lightning disturbances and are likely to
cause inter- turn insulation failure.
 These over voltages are usually limited by
shunting the high voltage terminals to earth
either with a plain rod gap or by lightning
arrestors (surge diverters).
2. Power Frequency Over-voltage
Power frequency over voltage causes both
increase in stress on the insulation and a
proportionate increase in the working flux.

The latter causes an increase in the iron loss and a

disproportionate increase in magnetizing current.

Under conditions of over excitation of core, the

core bolts which normally carry little flux may be
subjected to a large component of flux diverted
from the highly saturated region of core along
side.
contd..
Under this condition the bolts may get heated to a
temperature, which may destroy their own insulation
and will damage the coil insulation if the condition
continues. Reduction in frequency has an effect on
flux density, which is similar to that of over voltage

In other words, the transformer can operate with

some degree of over voltage with a corresponding
increase in frequency. But operation must not be
continued with a high voltage input at a low
frequency.
MAGNETISING INRUSH:

The phenomenon of magnetizing inrush is a

transient condition, which occurs primarily
when a transformer is energized.

It is not a fault condition and therefore does

not necessitate the operation of protection,
which on the contrary must remain stable
during the inrush transient, which is a major
factor that is to be taken care of in the
design of transformer protection.
contd..
Harmonic content of inrush waveform

 The waveform of transformer magnetizing current contains

a proportion of harmonics, which increases as the peak flux
density is raised to the saturating condition.
 As long as the waveform is symmetrical about the
horizontal axis, only odd harmonics will be present.
 The energizing conditions, which result in an offset inrush
current, produce a waveform, which is not symmetrical
about horizontal axis.
 Such wave typically contains both even and odd harmonics.
 Typical inrush currents contain substantial amounts of
second and third harmonics.
OVER HEATING PROTECTION

• The rating of a transformer is based on the

temperature rise above maximum ambient
temperature.
• At a lower ambient temperature some degree
of overload can be safely applied but not
advisable for to-day’s transformers.
• Short period overloads are also permissible to
an extent dependent on the previous loading
conditions.
contd..
• Protection against overload is based on winding
temperature.

• The winding temperature is measured by thermal imaging.

• The winding temperature indicates the winding hot-spot

temperature of oil-immersed transformers.

• The sensing bulb is placed in oil filled pocket located in

the hottest oil of the transformer (on the top of transformer
oil tank). The thermal image device consists of a heater
and shunt network fed from a current transformer in one
phase of transformer LV side.
contd..
 The current proportional to the transformer load- current
from the CT is passed through the heater, which
simulates corresponding winding gradient (winding to
top oil temperature differential).

 The measuring portion of WTI reacts to both the top oil

temperature sensed by the bulb and the winding gradient
simulated by the heater.

 Thus the WTI directly displays the temperature in the

hottest part of the winding.
 Design of protection:
• To design the protective scheme it is necessary to have an
idea/ intimate knowledge of faults. A fault can be detected
by particular type of protection equipment and some of the
protection equipments are more sensitive than the other.

• Most protective schemes applied to the transformers are

based on the current balance principle of magnitude
comparison of current flowing into and out of the
transformer.
 Protective relays:
 Protective relays limit the damage in case of fault and
monitor to caution against a developing fault. Therefore
fast and reliable protective relays should be used.
Protective features on Transformer

 Buchholz relay(OLTC & main tank)

 Over load protection relays
 Over current protection
 Ground fault protection
 Differential protection
 Pressure relief device protection
 Oil monitoring(DGA)
 Over fluxing protection
 The following relays are employed to protect the
transformer against internal faults.
i) Buchholz relays
ii) Differential relays
iii) REF relays,
v) Over fluxing relays
i) Buchholz Relays : -
Whenever a fault in transformer develops slowly, heat is
produced locally, which begins to decompose solid or liquid
insulated materials and thus produce inflammable gas and oil
flow. This phenomenon has been used in the gas protection relay
or popularly known as Buchholz relay.
b) Incipient Faults: - Which are initially minor faults,
causing slowly developing damage, such as a poor
electrical connection of conductors or breakdown of
insulation, etc.

Conservator Alarm

Transformer
Tank

Trip
Buchholz relay is used in the so-called conservator type
transformer in which the transformer tank is completely filled
with oil, and a pipe connects the transformer tank to an auxiliary
tank or " Conservator“ which acts as an expansion chamber.
Figure shown is Buchholz relay connected into the pipe leading
to the conservator tank and arrange to detect gas produced in the
transformer tank. As the gas accumulates for a minor fault the
oil level falls and, with it a float `F' which operates a mercury
switch sounding an alarm.
When a more serious fault occurs within the transformer during
which intense heating takes place, an intense liberation of gases
results.
These gases rush towards the conservator and create a rise in
pressure in the transformer tank due to which the oil is forced
through the connecting pipe to the conservator. The oil flow
develops a force on the lower float shown as "V" in the figure
and over trips it causing its contacts to complete the trip circuit
of the transformer breaker. Operation of the upper float
indicates an incipient fault and that of the lower float a serious
fault.
Buchholz relay Operation : Certain Precautions:
The Buchholz relay may become operative not only during faults
within the transformer. For instance, when oil is added to a
transformer, air may get in together with oil, accumulate under
the relay cover and thus cause a false operation of the gas relay.
For this reason when the 'Gas' alarm signal is energized, the
operators must take a sample of the gas from the relay, for which
purpose a special cock is provided. Gases due to faults always
have color and an odour and are inflammable.
The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in
the connection pipe, though not due to internal faults, is
sufficient to trip over the float. This can occur in the event of
an external short circuit when over currents flowing through
the windings overheat the copper and the oil and cause
the oil to expand. If mal-operation of Buchholz relay due
to overloads or external short circuits is experienced, it
may be necessary that the lower float is adjusted for
operation for still higher velocities.
In installing these relays the following requirements should be
fulfilled.
a) The conductors connecting the contacts to the terminals on
the cover must have paper insulation, as rubber insulation may be
damaged by the oil.
b) The floats must be tested for air tightness, for example, by
submerging them in hot oil to create a surplus pressure in them.
c) The relay cover and the connection pipe should have a
slope of 1.5 to 3 percent and not have any protruding surface to
ensure unrestricted passage of the gases into the conservator.
NORMS OF PROTECTION TO BE FOLLOWED AS PER A.P.E.R.C.
ORDERS
S.No. Voltage Protection Scheme

1. 400 KV Line Main-I: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme

Main-II: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme
2. 220 KV Line Main-I : Non switched distance scheme (Fed from Bus
PTs)
Main-II: Switched distance scheme (Fed from line
CVTs)
With a changeover facility from bus PT to line CVT and
vice-versa.
3. 132 KV lines Main Protection : Switched distance scheme (fed from
bus PT).
Backup Protection: 3 Nos. directional IDMT O/L Relays
and 1 No. directional IDMT E/L relay.
4. 33 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 3 O/L and 1 E/L relays.

5. 11 KV lines Non-directional IDMT 2 O/L and 1 E/L relays.

Notes
1.On some of the old 220KV lines one Distance
scheme with backup directional IDMT 3 O/L & E/L
relays were provided.
2.On some of the 132KV grid lines, only distance
scheme is available
3.Very few 66KV lines are in service (which are also
being phased out)

Busbars : All 220 KV busbars will have Busbar

protection scheme with main and check
zone.
 NORMS OF PROTECTION FOR EHV CLASS POWER TRANSFORMERS

POWER STATIONS
Voltage ratio & HV Side LV Side Common relays
capacity
i. 11/132 KV GT 3-Non-dir O/L + 1-Non-dir E/L -- Differential or Overall
relay and/or standby E/F + differential, Overflux,
REF Buchholz,
OLTC Buchholz,
PRV, OT, WT

i. 13.8/220 KV 3-Non-dir O/L + 1-Non-dir E/L -- Differential or Overall

15.75/220 KV relay and/or standby E/F + differential , Overflux,
18/400 KV REF Buchholz,
21/400 KV OLTC Buchholz,
Generator T/Fs PRV, OT, WT

i. 220 /6.6KV 3-Non-dir O/L + 1-Non-dir E/L 3-Non-dir. O/L relays Differential, Overflux,
Station T/Fs relay and/or standby E /F + Buchholz,
REF OLTC Buchholz,
PRV, OT, WT

i. Gen-volt/6.6KV 3-Non-dir. O/L relays 3-Non-dir. O/L relays Differential, Overflux,

UAT Buchholz,
OLTC Buchholz,
PRV, OT, WT
 SUBSTATIONS
Voltage ratio & capacity HV Side LV Side Common relays

1 132/33/11KV upto 8 MVA 3 O/L relays + 1 E/L 2 O/L relays + 1 E/L Buchholz, OLTC
relay relay Buchholz, OT, WT
2 132/33/11KV above 8 MVA 3 O/L relays + 1 dir. E/L 3 O/L relays + 1 E/L Differential,
and below 31.5 MVA relay relay Buchholz, OLTC
Buchholz, OT, WT
3 132/33KV, 31.5 MVA & 3 O/L relays + 1 dir. E/L 3 O/L relays + 1 E/L Differential,
above relay relay Overflux,
Buchholz, OLTC
PRV, OT, WT
4 220/33 KV, 31.5MVA & 3 O/L relays + 1 dir. E/L 3 O/L relays + 1 dir. relay Differential,
50MVA 220/132KV, relay Overflux,
100 MVA Buchholz, OLTC
PRV, OT, WT
5 400/220KV 315MVA 3 directional O/L relays 3 directional O/L relays Differential,
(with dir.highset) (with dir.highset)+1 Overflux,
+1 directional E/L relays. directional E/L relays. Buchholz, OLTC
Restricted E/F relay Restricted E/F relay PRV, OT, WT and
+ 3 Directional O/L overload (alarm)
relays for action relay
Breaker failure protection: The LBB protection scheme will be
provided for all 220KV stations (along with
busbar protection scheme)

Transformers ;

1. No Buchholz relay for transformers below 500 KVA capacity

2. Transformers upto 1500 KVA shall have only Horn gap protection
3. Transformers above 1500 KVA and upto 8000 KVA of 33/11KV ratio shall
have one group control breaker on HV side if there is more than one
transformer and individual L.V. breakers.
4. Transformers above 8000 KVA shall have individual HV and LV circuit
breakers.
5. The relays indicate above shall be provided on HV and LV
6. LAs to be provided on HV & LV for transformers of all capacities and
voltage class.
7. OLTC out of step protection is to be provided where Master follower
scheme is in operation
8. Fans failure and pumps failure alarms to be connected.
9. Alarms for O.T., W.T., Buchholz (Main tank & OLTC) should be connected
Differential Protection:

The following points are to be considered

when applying the Differential Protection:
The CT secondary connections must be
arranged so that any phase shift due to vector
group of the main transformer is
compensated for.
 The CT ratios must be chosen to suit the
main transformer ratio so that the differential
currents will be zero during normal operation
and where the main transformer ratio is
variable by means of tap changing.
 Effect of magnetizing inrush current.
 The Transformer Differential relay must be able to cope with
the following conditions:

When energizing the transformer after the fault, it is possible

to obtain a large inrush current in the exciting winding. The
magnitude and duration of the inrush current depends on

o Instant of switching in
o Design of transformer
o Type of transformer connection
o Method of neutral grounding
o The fault MVA rating of transformer
o When transformers connected in parallel.
A Differential relay compares the currents on both sides of the
transformer. As long as there is no fault within the protected
equipment (Transformer), the current circulates between the two
CTs and no current flows through the differential element. But for
internal faults the sum of the CTs secondary currents will flow
through the differential relay making it to operate.
Two basic requirements that the differential relay connections
are to be satisfied are :
a) It must not operate for load or external faults.
b) It must operate for internal faults.
• The Protective zone of a Differential relay
includes faults in Transformer, faults on
Buses or cables between CT and
transformer and then rapidly initiate
disconnection of the supply to the main
transformer. Then damages as well as non-
selective tripping of other protective relays
are prevented.
 As on-load tap change facilities are invariably provided
in the grid transformers, any departure from the nominal
tap position will result in spill currents in the relay circuits.
Further, the CTs are often of different types and have
dissimilar magnetization characteristics, again resulting in
spill current during heavy through fault conditions.

To avoid unwanted relays operation under the above

two conditions, a "Percentage Bias" differential relay is
used.
 Generally, the magnitude of the inrush current can
be 5-10 times the rated current when switching in
to high voltage side and 10-20 times the rated
current when switching in to low voltage side.

To prevent the relay to operate when energizing

or to delay the operation, an instantaneous relay
must have a magnetizing inrush restraint and
thereby utilizing certain characteristic difference
between inrush current and fault current.
 The operating characteristics of percentage bias differential
relay is shown in the figure.
The current flowing through the operating coil of the relay
should be nearly zero during normal operating conditions and
when external short circuit occurs.
While setting the differential relay on a transformer, the
(mismatch) current through differential element at normal tap and
positive and negative extreme taps are to be computed.
Differential element pickup setting and/or bias settings is adopted
based on maximum percentage mismatch adding some safety
margin.
Differential Current = | I1 -I2 |
Bias Setting = | I1-I2 |
-----------
(I1+I2)
C T Ratios and connections for differential relay
A simple rule of thumb is that the CTs on any Wye (Star) winding
of a Power transformer should be connected in delta and the CTs on
any delta winding should be connected in Wye (Star).
2. a) If the CTs are to be connected in Star, the C.T
Ratio will be In / lA
Where In is transformer full load current.
b) If the CTs are to be connected in Delta, the C.T
Ratio will be In/0.5775 A.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection (REF) :
This relay is operative only for the internal faults of the
transformer and thus fast operating time can be achieved.
1. An external fault on the star side will result in current
flowing in the line CT of the affected phase and a balancing
current in the neutral CT and current in the relay is zero and
hence relay is stable. During an internal fault, the line current on
the line CT gets reversed and hence relay operates.
2. The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta
side of a transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta
side because zero sequence currents are blocked by the delta
winding.
For external faults no current flows through REF unless a CT gets
saturated. Hence minimum pickup current setting is adopted (10%
or 20% In) on REF relay. Based on the through fault current, the
stabilizing resistor is set such that the relay will not operate for
external fault when a CT gets saturated. This relay operates only
for internal earth faults, instantaneously.
Fault current for external fault If = 2500 A (assume)
C.T.Ratio (line and neutral) - 300/1 A
2500
Secondary fault current = ------ = 8. 33 A (Sec.)
300
RCT = C.T. Resistance
TL = Lead Resistance = 7.41 Ohms/Km (2.5 sq mmCu)
Voltage developed across CT (Saturated)
(Vk) = If (RCT + 2RL)
= 8.33(5 + 3)
= 66.64 Volts
Relay burden = l VA
Relay Operating
Current = 0.2 A (Set value)
Relay Operating Voltage
VR =
Relay burden
------------------
Relay Operating current
= 1/0.2 = 5 Volt
Stabilizing Resistor SR = VK - VR
-----------
ISet
= 66.64 - 5.0
---------------
0.2
= 308.2 Ohms
Set SR = 310 Ohms
If the calculated value of SR exceeds the existing range, the
current settings can be raised accordingly and arrived at suitable
SR value.
1
I. Over fluxing condition in a transformer can occur during
system over voltage and/or under frequency conditions (V/F).
II. The Over fluxing condition does not call for high speed
tripping. The tripping can be delayed depending on the over
flux withstand capability of the transformer.
III. Relays with definite time delay (nearly 30Sec.) and inverse
characteristic are being employed.
Other Protective devices employed
Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)
Winding Temperature
Oil Temperature
OLTC surge relay