Electrical Instrumentations

and Measurements
(BEE 2123)

Ignatius Agung Wibowo

C17-101-09
Introduction
Instruments
 A device or mechanism used to determine the
present value of a quantity under observation
 Purpose: supply information about some variable
quantity that is to be measured
 Basic functions:
 Indicating: Provide a visual indication to the quantity being
measured
 Recording: Store the quantity in a permanent record
 Controlling: Control the quantity
Measurement
 The process of determining the amount,
quantity, degree, or capacity by comparing an
unknown quantity with an accepted standard
quantity.
Purpuses:
 To monitor a process or operation

 To control a process
Chapter 1
Error in Measurement
Error
 The degree to which a measurement conforms to the expected
value
 Absolute error: the difference between the expected value of the
variable and the measured value of the variable
e = Yn – Xn
e: absolute error
Yn: expected value
Xn: measured value
Absolute error
Percent error   100%
Expected value
Example
 The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 50V, however the measurement yields
49V.
 The absolute error
e = 50 – 49 = 1V

1
 The percent of error = 50  100% = 2%
Types of Error
1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Error
3. Random Error
Gross Error
 The fault of the person using the instruments
 Due such things as incorrect reading of
instruments, incorrect recording of
experimental data, or incorrect use of
instruments
Systematic Error
 Due to problems with instruments, environmental effects, or
observational errors
 Recur if several measurements are made of the same quantity under
the same conditions
 Instrument errors
 May be due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement, incorrect
spring tension, improper calibration, or faulty instruments
 Can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments
 Environmental errors
 Environmental conditions in which instruments are used
 Harsh environment such as high temperature, pressure, humidity, strong
electrostatic or electromagnetic fields
 Observational errors
 Errors introduced by the observer
 Common observation errors: Parallax error and error of estimation
Random Errors
 Errors that remain after the gross and
systematic errors are eliminated
 Accumulation of a large number of small
effects
Precision
 A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements
 A quantitative or numerical indication of the closeness with
which a repeated set of measurements of the same variable
agrees with the average of the set of measurement

Xn  Xn
Precision  1 
Xn
X n : the value of the n th measurement
X n : the average of the set of n measurements
Example
Measurement Measurement Value
Number Xn (volts) Precision of the 4th measurement

1 98
Xn  Xn
2 102 Precision  1 
Xn
3 101
4 97 97  101.1
 1
5 100 101.1
6 103  1  0.04
7 98
 0.96
8 106
9 107
10 99
Accuracy
 The degree of exactness of a measurement compared to the
expected value or the most probable value.
 Relative accuracy:

Yn  X n
A  1
Yn
Yn : expected value
X n : measured value
 Percent accuracy:
a = 100% - Percent error = A x 100%
Example
 The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 50V, however the
measurement yields 49V.
 Accuracy:

Yn  X n
A  1
Yn
50  49
 1
50
1
 1
50
 0.98

 Percent accuracy:
a = 100% - 2% = 98%
= A x 100% = 0.98 x 100% = 98%
Significant figure
 Indicate the precision of the measurement
 Measurement using digital voltmeter:
 Display: 8.135V  4 (four) significant figures  Measurement precision:
0.001V = 1mV
 Display: 8.13V  3 (three) significant figures  Measurement precision:
0.01V = 10mV
 Resistance value:
 Stated as 47.3
 Actual value may not be exactly 47.3
 3 (three) significant figures
 Measurement precision: 0.1
 Resistance value:
 Stated as 47.3k
 3 (three) significant figures
 Measurement precision: 0.1k = 100
Significant figure (cont.)
 The position of the decimal point does not
affect the number of significant figures
 If a zero is used merely to locate the decimal
point, it is not a significant figure.
 However, if it actually represents a digit read
with an instrument, or estimated, then it is a
significant figure.
Rules regarding significant
figure
1. When performing addition and subtraction, do not carry
the result beyond the first column that contains a
doubtful figure. As a general rule, all figures in columns
to the right of the last column in which all figures are
significant should be dropped.
2. When performing multiplication and division, retain only
as many significant figures as the least precise quantity
contains.
3. When dropping nonsignificant figures, do not change the
last figure to be retained if the figures dropped equal less
than one-half. The last figure retained should increase by
1 if the figures dropped have a value equal to or greater
than, one-half.
Significant figure (cont.)
 The voltage drops across two resistors in a series
circuit are measured as
V1 = 6.31 V
V2= 8.736 V
 The applied voltage is the sum of the voltage drops.
 The applied voltage is given by
E = 6.31V + 8.736V = 15.046V
 Rounded to the same precision as the least precise
voltage drop, the supply voltage is given as
E = 15.05V
Significant figure (cont.)
 Voltage measurement: V = 8.14 V  3 significant figures
 Current measurement: I = 2.33 mA  3 significant
figures
 Calculation of resistance using calculator:

V 8.14
R   3.493562232k incorrect
I 2.33
 Use the same number of significant figures as in the
original quantity
V 8.14
R   3.49k
I 2.33 correct
Measurement Error
Combinations
 When a quantity is calculated from measurements
made on two (or more) instruments the error due to
instrument inaccuracy combine in worst possible
way.
 The resulting error is then larger than the error in
any one instrument.
 Calculations:
 Sum of quantities
 Difference of quantities
 Product of quantities
 Quotient of quantities
 Quantity raised to a power
Sum of Quantities
 A quantity is determined as the sum of two
measurements.
Sum of Quantities (cont.)
 The total error is the sum of absolute error in
each measurement.
E = V1+V2
E = (V1 ± V1) + (V2 ± V2)
= (V1+V2) ± (V1 + V2)
Example
Voltage measurement
 1st voltage: V1 = 100V ± 1%
 2nd voltage: V2 = 80V ± 5%

The sum of two voltage measurements:

 V1 = 100V ± 1% = 100V ± 1V
 V2 = 80V ± 5% = 80V ± 4V
 E = V1 + V 2

= (100V ± 1V) + (80V ± 4V)

= 180V ± 5V
= 180V ± 2.8%
Notes:
 We can not add the percentage directly
 The absolute error must be summed to find the total error
Difference of quantities
 A potential difference is determined as the
difference between two measured voltages
Difference of quantities (cont.)
E = V1-V2
= (V1 ± V1) - (V2 ± V2)
= (V1 - V2) ± (V1 + V2)
Example
Voltage measurement
 1st voltage: V1 = 100V ± 1%
 2nd voltage: V2 = 80V ± 5%
 The difference of two voltage measurements:
 V1 = 100V ± 1% = 100V ± 1V
 V2 = 80V ± 5% = 80V ± 4V
 E = V1 - V2
= (100V ± 1V) - (80V ± 4V)
= 20 ± 5V
= 20 ± 25%
Notes:
 The percentage error in the difference of two quantities can be very large.
 If the difference was smaller, the percentage error would be even larger.
 Measurement systems involving the difference of two quantities should be
avoided.
Product of quantities
 When a calculated quantity is the product of
two or more quantities, the percentage error
is the sum of the percentage errors in each
quantity
Product of quantities (cont.)
P = EI
= (E ± E)(/ ± /)
= EI ± EI + /E+ EI
Since  EI is very small
P = EI ± (EI + /E)
EI  IE
Percentage error   100%
EI
 EI IE 
    100%
 EI EI 
 I E 
    100%
 I E 

% error in P = % error in I + % error in E

Quotient of quantities
 It can be shown that the percentage error is the
sum of the percentage errors in each quantity.

E  E
R 
I  I
Solution
E  E E
R  Percent error in
I  I I
IR  IR  E  E  E  IR 
 
E  E  IR   I   100%
R E
I  
E E  IR  I 
   E  IR 
I I    100%
 E 
 E IR 
    100%
 E E 
 E I 
    100%
 E I 
Quantity Raised to a Power
 When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the
percentage error in AB can be shown to be

 For a current / with an accuracy of ±3%, the

error in /2 is 2(±3%) = ±6%
Example
 An 820  resistance with an accuracy of ± 10% carries a current of
10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25
mA range with an accuracy of ±2% of full scale. Calculate the power
dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result.
 Solution
Summary
 For X = A ± B, error in X = ± [(error in A) + (error in B)]
 For X = AB,  % error in X = ± [(% error in A) + (% error in B)]
 For X = A/B,  % error in X = ± [(% error in A) + (% error in B)]
 For X = AB,  % error in X = ±B(% error in A)