LOCOMOTION SYSTEM

(Skeletal and Muscular Systems)

Human Skeleton
FUNCTIONS
SUPPORT - organs and tissues of the body are held in
place by the skeleton.

PROTECTION – provides a rigid surface for

protection of vital organs ie. cranium protects the brain

MOVEMENT – bones provide a base for muscle

attachment. It allows movement of the body through
using the bones as levers.

PRODUCTION & STORAGE – bones provide a site

for manufacture of red & white blood cells and storage
of minerals. Ie.calcium
 STRUCTURE OF SKELETON
 There are about 206 bones found in an adult skeleton.

 The bones are divided into two main groups

(1) AXIAL SKELETON
(2) APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 AXIAL SKELETON

The axial skeleton forms

the basic structure
supporting the rest of
the skeleton.

It consists of:
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib cage
 AXIAL SKELETON

SKULL
Cranium consists of 8 bones fused
together.
Face has 14 bones. Most are fused,
whilst others like the mandible
(lower jaw bone) can move
independently
Fusion of the human skull
 AXIAL SKELETON

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Divided into 5 main regions

1. Cervical spine (7)
2. Thoracic spine (12)
3. Lumbar spine (5)
4. Sacrum (5)
5. Coccyx (4)

The 5 sacrum vertebrae

and 4 coccyx vertebrae
are fused to form one
solid bone.
 AXIAL SKELETON
ATLAS – first cervical vertebra
AXIS – second cervical
vertebra
Spinal chord runs down the
canal formed by the
vertebra being stacked on
top of one another.
Intervertebral Discs are found
between each vertebrae
and keep spine flexible and
they absorb shock
Coccyx remnance of a tail
 AXIAL SKELETON

THORAX
12 pairs of ribs
Joined to thoracic
Vertebrae
Top 10 ribs joined to
Sternum
Remaining two have “free”
ends – ‘floating’
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Forms mainly the extremities of

the body and their connections
to the axial skeleton

Consists of
- limbs (arms & legs)
- shoulder and pelvic girdles
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
THE ARM AND HAND
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

THE LEG AND FOOT

 Bone Classification
4 types of bones:
1. Long Bones
Much longer than they are wide.
All bones of the limbs except for
the patella (kneecap), and the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
Consists of a shaft plus 2
expanded ends.
Your finger bones are long bones
even though they’re very short –
how can this be?
2. Short Bones
Roughly cube shaped.
Bones of the wrist and the ankle.

Carpal Bones
 Bone Classification
Types of bones:
4. Flat Bones
Thin, flattened, and usually
a bit curved. Scapulae,
sternum,(shoulder blades),
ribs and most bones of the Sternum
skull.
5. Irregular Bones
Have weird shapes that fit
none of the 3 previous
classes. Vertebrae, hip
bones, 2 skull bones
(sphenoid and the
ethmoid bones). Sphenoid
Bone
 Bone Structure

Bone tissue is a type of connective

tissue, so it must consist of cells
plus a significant amount of
extracellular matrix.
Bone cells:
1. Osteoblasts
Bone-building cells.
Synthesize and secrete
collagen fibers and
other organic
components of bone matrix.
Initiate the process of calcification.
Found in both the periosteum and
the endosteum
The blue arrows indicate the
osteoblasts. The yellow arrows
indicate the bone matrix they’ve
 Bone Structure
Yellow arrows
2. Osteocytes indicate osteocytes –
notice how they are
Mature bone cells. surrounded by the
Osteoblasts that have become pinkish bone matrix.

trapped by the secretion of Blue arrow shows an

osteoblast in the
matrix. process of becoming
No longer secrete matrix. an osteocyte.
Responsible for maintaining the
bone tissue.

On the right, notice how the

osteocyte is “trapped” within the
pink matrix
3. Osteoclasts
Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes (a type of white blood cell).
Cells that digest bone matrix – this process is called bone resorption and is part of normal bone
growth, development, maintenance, and repair. Concentrated in the endosteum.
On the side of the cell that faces the bone surface, the PM is deeply folded into a ruffled border.
Here, the osteoclast secretes digestive enzymes (how might this occur?) to digest the bone
matrix. It also pumps out hydrogen ions (how might this occur?) to create an acid environment
that eats away at the matrix. What advantage might a ruffled border confer?
Why do we want a cell that eats away at bone? (Hint: bone is a very dynamic tissue.)
Bone Growth
 SHORT BONE GROWTH

The outside of a short bone is formed by cartilage.

The cartilage grows until the final shape of the
bone is formed.
Meanwhile the bone ossifies (hardens into bone)
from the inside outwards. Eventually all cartilage
is ossified, and growth is complete.
 LONG BONE GROWTH
Two growth processes responsible for done development.

First process:
OSTEOBLASTS (bone builders) – add bone to the outside surface, enlarging
and elongating the bone.
OSTEOCLASTS (bone eaters) – tunnel out the marrow cavity and internal
spaces (these work at the same time as osteoblasts.)

Second process (greatest growth occurs):

EPIPHYSEAL PLATES (growth plates) found at either end of the bone where
the shaft (diaphysis) meets the head or base (epiphysis). These growth
plates are made of cartilage cells which multiply rapidly and the outside
cells ossify, increasing the length of the shaft.
LONG BONE GROWTH
 Hormonal Effects
on Bone
Growth hormone, produced by the
pituitary gland, and thyroxine,
produced by the thyroid gland,
stimulate bone growth.
GH stimulates protein synthesis and cell
growth throughout the body.

Thyroxine stimulates cell metabolism and

increases the rate of osteoblast activity.
In proper balance, these hormones
maintain normal activity of the epiphyseal
plate (what would you consider normal
activity?) until roughly the time of
puberty.
 Hormonal Effects on Bone
At puberty, the rising levels of sex hormones (estrogens in females and
androgens in males) cause osteoblasts to produce bone faster than
the epiphyseal cartilage can divide. This causes the characteristic
growth spurt as well as the ultimate closure of the epiphyseal plate.
Estrogens cause faster closure of the epiphyseal growth plate than do
androgens.
Estrogen also acts to stimulate osteoblast activity.
 Hormonal Effects on Bone

Other hormones that affect bone growth include insulin and

the glucocorticoids.
Insulin stimulates bone formation
Glucocorticoids inhibit osteoclast activity.

Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are 2 hormones that

antagonistically maintain blood [Ca2+] at homeostatic levels.
Since the skeleton is the body’s major calcium reservoir, the
activity of these 2 hormones affects bone resorption and deposition.
 Calcitonin
Released by the C cells of the thyroid gland in response to high blood [Ca2+].
Calcitonin acts to “tone down” blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin causes decreased osteoclast activity which results in decreased
break down of bone matrix and decreased calcium being released into the blood.

Calcitonin also stimulates osteoblast activity which means calcium will be taken
from the blood and deposited as bone matrix.

Notice the thyroid

follicles on the
right. The arrow
indicates a C cell
 Calcitonin Negative Feedback Loop

Increased Blood [Ca2+] Increased calcitonin release from

thyroid C cells.

Decreased osteoclast activity

Increased osteoblast activity

 Parathyroid Hormone
• Released by the cells of the parathyroid gland
in response to low blood [Ca2+].Causes blood
[Ca2+] to increase.
• PTH will bind to osteoblasts and this will cause
2 things to occur:
• The osteoblasts will decrease their
activity and they will release a
chemical known as osteoclast-
stimulating factor.
• Osteoclast-stimulating factor will
increase osteoclast activity.

PTH increases calcitriol synthesis which increases Ca2+ absorption in the

small intestine.
PTH decreases urinary Ca2+ excretion and increases urinary phosphate
excretion.
 Decreased Blood [Ca2+]

Increased PTH release by

parathyroid gland

Binds to osteoblast causing

decreased osteoblast Increased calcitriol Decreased Ca2+
activity and release of synthesis excretion
osteoclast-stimulating
factor

Increased intestinal
Ca2+ absorption
OSF causes increased
osteoclast activity

Decreased bone deposition

and increased bone resorption Increased Blood [Ca2+]
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