MBA 602

Organizational
Behavior & Change
Management
Module 2:
Foundations of
Individual Behavior

www.mygbs.org Switzerland | United Arab Emirates

 Chapter Learning Objectives
• After studying this chapter you should be able to:
– Contrast the two types of ability.
– Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to
OB.
– Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe
how they are relevant to OB.
– Define learning and outline the principles of the three
major theories of learning.
– Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB.
– Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual
abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.

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 Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in
a job.

• Made up of two sets of factors:

– Intellectual Abilities
• The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
• General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence.
• Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for
recruitment screening.
• No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
– Physical Abilities
• The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,
and similar characteristics.

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 Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

• Number Aptitude
• Verbal Comprehension
• Perceptual Speed
• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Spatial Visualization
• Memory

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 Nine Basic Physical Abilities
• Strength Factors
– Dynamic strength
– Trunk strength
– Static strength
– Explosive strength
• Flexibility Factors
– Extent flexibility
– Dynamic flexibility
• Other Factors
– Body coordination
– Balance
– Stamina

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 Biographical Characteristics
Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.

• Age
– Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work
ethic, and commitment to quality.
• Gender
– Few differences between men and women that affect job
performance.
• Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)
– Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more
culture-based than race-based.

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 Other Biographical Characteristics
• Tenure
– People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more
productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover,
and are more satisfied.
• Religion
– Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this
post-9/11 world.
• Sexual Orientation
– Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but
state or local laws may).
– Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.
• Gender Identity
– Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

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 Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs as a result of experience

• Learning components:
– Involves Change
– Is Relatively Permanent
– Is Acquired Through Experience

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 Theories of Learning

• Classical Conditioning
– A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to
some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a
response.
• Operant Conditioning
– A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior
leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
• Social-Learning Theory
– People can learn through observation and direct
experience.

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 Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s Dog Drool
• Key Concepts:
– Unconditioned stimulus
• A naturally occurring phenomenon.
– Unconditioned response
• The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
– Conditioned stimulus
• An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
– Conditioned response
• The response to the artificial stimulus.
This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the
best theory for OB learning.

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 Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior
follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

• Key Concepts:
– Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned,
not reflexive.
– Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can
increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition.
– Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
– Rewards are most effective immediately after
performance.
– Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.
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 Social-Learning Theory
• Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by
observation, reading, or just hearing about someone else’s – a
model’s – experiences.

• Key Concepts:
– Attentional processes
• Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.
– Retention processes
• Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.
– Motor reproduction processes
• Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.
– Reinforcement processes
• Positive incentives motivate learners.
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 Shaping: A Managerial Tool
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
• Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
– Positive reinforcement
• Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
– Negative reinforcement
• Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior
occurs (learning)
– Punishment
• Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable
behavior (“unlearning”)
– Extinction
• Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
(“unlearning”)

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 Schedules of Reinforcement

• Two Major Types:

– Continuous Reinforcement
• A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated
– Intermittent Reinforcement
• A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated
• Multiple frequencies.

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 Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

• Ratio
– Depends on the number of responses made.
• Interval
– Depends on the time between reinforcements.
• Fixed
– Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a set
number of responses.
• Variable
– Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary relative to the
behavior.

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 Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
The application of reinforcement concepts to
individuals in the work setting.

• Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model:

– Identify critical behaviors
– Develop baseline data
– Identify behavioral consequences
– Develop and apply intervention
– Evaluate performance improvement

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 Problems with OB Mod

• OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.

• OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that
involve thinking and feeling.
• Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of
shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using

cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.

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 Global Implications
• Intellectual Abilities
– Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across
cultures.

• Biographical Characteristics
– Not much evidence on the global relevance of the
relationships described in this chapter.
– Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical
composition.

• Learning
– Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot
generalize at this point.

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 Summary and Managerial Implications
• Three Individual Variables:
– Ability
• Directly influences employee’s level of performance
• Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and
transfer.
• Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities.

– Biographical Characteristics
• Should not be used in management decisions: possible source of
bias.

– Learning
• Observable change in behavior = learning.
• Reinforcement works better than punishment.

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