Chain Rule of Differentiation

It is primarily used to find the time derivative of a variable when the variable is a function of
some other variable.
Ex: If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 Find 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= . = 𝑥2 . = 2𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑥ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The Taylor’s Series

Taylor’s series can be used to represent an infinitesimal (extremely small) change in the value
of a differentiable function within a neighborhood of a point. We can say it is the foundation
stone for numerical techniques in engineering specially the approximations of derivatives in
complex differential equations.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 2
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + + +⋯
1! 2!
Neglecting higher order terms since Δx is a small quantity
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥
Total Derivative
Using total derivative we can calculate the total differential change in the value of a function of
several variables with respect to an independent variable provided that the effect of differential
change of all independent variables is also taken into account. This characteristic makes the total
derivative different from the partial derivative.

𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Important Equalities 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)

න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)2 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Ex:
𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
f(x) = x =1
Ex: f(x) = x f(x)2 = x2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑥2 𝑑 ‫ ׬‬1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑐
= 𝑥, 𝑥 𝑥=𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
 The Bernoulli Equation
• The equation was developed by a physicist named Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782).
• Bernoulli equation is only used for inviscid (μ = 0), incompressible (ρ = constant), steady state
(time independent) and irrotational flows (no velocity gradients exist in the flow field).
• Many practical fluid dynamics problems can be analyzed with the Bernoulli equation.

t =0

V1 V2 V3

Vn

Irrotational Curl of V1 V2 V3
flow velocity vector Rotational flow
must be zero (velocity gradient exist) Vn

t >0
Steady state flow field
(In case of unsteady state flow field
every thing changes when time
changes)
Forces acting on the fluid particle:
• Various forces from the surroundings can act on the fluid particle in motion along a
streamline.
• Since we are dealing with inviscid fluid shear stress will be zero and only pressure and gravity
forces will be considered.
• We can use Newton’ 2nd law .
∑F = ma along a streamline:
Component of Newton’s 2nd law along the streamline :

Particle volume
Weight of the fluid particle:

Component of weight in the s direction: Let the pressure

in the center of
the particle be p.

From the figure note that

pressure in a flowing fluid is
not constant in general i.e.
p=p(s,n)
Therefore, the net pressure force δFps in the s direction (see the figure) is

Using Taylor’s expansion:

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 2
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + + +⋯
1! 2!
Neglecting higher order terms we can write as follows:
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥

Therefore,

So,

Thus the net force acting on the moving fluid particle is

Since, •This equation suggest that the acceleration in

stream wise direction is caused by the pressure
gradient and component of the weight of the fluid
acting in the stream wise direction.
From the figure:
Sinθ = dz/ds
According to one form of chain rule of differentiation
or 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 2
𝛾 + + =0
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠

Since V = V(s) = f(s) d/ds (V2/2) = VdV/ds Integrating w.r.t ds with γ&ρ constant
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑉 2
Also since the p = p(s,n) 𝛾 ‫𝑠𝑑 ׬‬ + ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑠𝑑 ׬‬ + 𝜌/2 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑠 =0
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

We get:
1 2
But dn =0 on a streamline (since n can only change 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
from one streamline to the other in the n direction) 2
The Bernoulli Equation
Therefore, on a streamline
• Can be applied b/w any two
points on a same streamline

Substituting these results in the following equation Note that: If y =2x than dy/dx = 2
Therefore,
ʃ(dy/dx)dx = 2x = y+C = original
variable
 Static, Dynamic, Total and Stagnation Pressure
Static Pressure (p):
It is the true pressure of the flowing fluid measured at a point by a instrument that is
stationary (Eulerian view point). In terms of Lagrangian view point it is the pressure
that will be measured by an observer flowing with the speed of the flow so that the
observer becomes static relative to the fluid. This pressure can be measured by a
piezo-tube, a u-tube manometer or a Bourdon gage.
𝟏
Dynamic Pressure (𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟐 ):
It is the pressure due to the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid. It is always present in a
flowing fluid.

Hydrostatic Pressure (γz):

It is the pressure which can appear due to the changes in the elevation (z) of the flowing fluid.
In other words it is due to the variation of potential energy of the flowing fluid.

Total Pressure (pT):

The sum of static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure is the total pressure of the fluid. If elevation
changes are substantial the total pressure is the largest pressure that can be encountered in a flow.
Bernoulli’s equation thus states that the total pressure of the flowing fluid remains constant
𝟏
along the streamline 𝒑 + 𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟐 +𝜸𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Stagnation Pressure (po)
This pressure can only arise when the flow encounters a restriction/obstacle in its direction for
instance a partially closed valve, a stationary body placed in the direction of the flow etc. The
streamline (stagnation streamline) that encounters the restriction assumes a zero velocity at the
point of contact (the stagnation point) while other streamlines can normally pass slide the
obstacle from above and below. At the stagnation point the kinetic energy of the flow diminishes
resulting in a pressure rise which is the stagnation pressure. This pressure can be measured by a
device known as Pitot tube.
Mathematically:
1
𝑝𝑜 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2
Note that if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure can be measured the speed (V) of the
flow can be measured.
F = ma along the Normal to the Streamline (pls read yourself)
After following similar steps that were used in deriving the Bernoulli’ s equation we get the
1
following important equation.
𝑧1 2 z 2
𝑉
𝑉2 𝑝2 = 𝛾ℎ − 𝜌 න 𝑑𝑧
𝑝 + 𝜌 න 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑧2 𝑅 n
𝑅 R
This equation when applied b/w two points (1 & 2) along the normal to the streamline suggests
that the pressure reduces as we move towards the center of curvature and increases when we
move away from the center of curvature.
Free Jets (pls read yourself)
A fluid jet that issues from an orifice (small opening), nozzle etc in to the atmosphere & is not
bounded by any solid walls is known as a free jet. The analysis was first conducted by Torricelli
in 1943. The variable of interest would be the ideal jet velocity (V) which can be estimated
using Bernoulli’s equation.
𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
Vena Contracta
It is due to the fact that fluids cannot undergo sharp turnings/bends. Therefore, the actual jet
diameter or x-sectional area is always smaller than the orifice diameter or x-sectional area. The
applications of vena contracta can be found in minor pipe losses, fluid instrumentation and
biomedical examinations such as echocardiography. It is quantified by a dimensionless
coefficient known as “coefficient of contraction Cc”. The coefficient of contraction depends on
the geometry of the exit orifice.
2 Subscript:
𝐴𝑗 𝑑𝑗
𝐶𝑐 = = Typical value of Cc can be taken as 0.64 j = Jet
𝐴𝑜 𝑑𝑜
o = Discharging device
Due to the vena contracta the actual flow rate of the jet will be
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge. (Cd = Cv×Cc), where Cv is the
𝑄ሶ = 𝐴𝑜 𝐶𝑑 𝑉 coefficient of velocity (the ratio of actual jet velocity and ideal jet velocity). For a
particular instrument/apparatus the values of the coefficients can be found in the
manufacturer’s data sheet.
 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Fluid: A type of matter which is free to move, flow & interact with its surroundings.
System: A collection of matter of fixed mass which may change its shape & size.
Control volume: A rigid or deformable, moveable or fixed geometric entity (volume) in space
through which the system can flow in & out ex: a pump, a compressor & a balloon.
•In order to study the behavior of the fluid system we need to apply different physical laws
to it e.g. Newton’s law, conservation of mass & laws of thermodynamics.
•However, as we mentioned earlier that to study each and every particle in the system is
difficult therefore, in fluid mechanics we use control volume approach
Hence, Reynolds Transport Theorem is a tool that relates
the system approach with the control volume approach
and allows us to apply laws of physics to the system of
fluid particles as it moves through a control volume.
Statement of the Theorem:
“The rate of change of an extensive property (example mass, momentum, and
energy) of a system is equal to the time rate of change of the intensive
counter part of that property within the control volume plus the net rate of
flux of that property through the control surface.” Note:
D(msys)/Dt = 0
Flux = Any thing that can flow in and out of the control volume with the fluid velocity.
examples include volumetric flux, mass flux, energy flux and momentum flux . D(mcv)/Dt < 0
Control Surface = surface/boundary of the control volume.
Mathematically:

(Valid for Only

non deformable
& fixed control
volumes)
D
Notation for material derivative (rate of change is observed in a control volume)
Dt
Bsys Any extensive property of the system
b The intensive counterpart of property Bsys (b = Bsys /m)
ρ The density

The velocity vector

V
The outward unit normal vector from the surface
n
Differential volume

dA The differential area on the portion of the control surface

The term on the left hand side represents the time rate of change of the property of the
system and a notation for material derivative is used because the system may flow from
one location to another location within the control volume, the first term on the right
hand side represents the rate of change of that property within the control volume and
the last term on the right hand side represents the net flux of that property from the
control surface.

Flux = In fluid mechanics “Flux” is any thing that can flow in and out of the control volume with
the fluid velocity. Examples include volumetric flux, mass flux, energy flux and momentum flux.