Engr. Randy G.

Policarpio
OBJECTIVE

The objective of this topic is to describe how

survey information was collected and processed
into topographic maps in the past and to illustrate
how data is currently processed into Digital Terrain
Models, with resultant products, such as contours.
 METHODS OF OBTAINING CONTOURS
 Two Major Classifications:
1. Direct Methods
It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls
of the points which lie on the selected contour line.
For vertical control levelling instrument is commonly
used.
Contours to be plotted are traced out in the field.
After the required elevation is found, the surveyor
establishes the horizontal control of that point
using his instrument.
This method is slow, tedious but accurate. It is
suitable for small areas.

2. Indirect Methods
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are reduced.
Thus in this method horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those
points found.
After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are
interpolated between the selected points.
 For selecting points anyone of the following methods may be used:

1. Transit-tape
2. Transit-stadia
Chasing contours (Trace-Contour Method)
Controlling point method
3. Cross sections
4. Radial Line
5. Dirty sheet’
6. Grid or Coordinate squares
7. Photogrammetry

Note: All methods depended on the assumption that there was a uniform slope
between any two ground points located in the field. Spot elevations were usually
given for critical points such as peaks, sags, streams, and highway crossings.
1. Transit-tape method
 This was the most accurate, but the slowest and most costly method.

2. Transit-stadia method
 Contours were found by either the chasing (tracing) contours or by the ‘controlling points’method.

 Chasing contours
 This method was used when the exact location of a particular contour line was needed. It was
effectively performed by use of a plane table, but was also done by the transit- stadia survey
method.
 The rod reading (foresight) which must be subtracted from the height of the instrument to give
the contour elevation was determined (sometimes referred to as the ‘grade rod’). The rod person
then was directed uphill or downhill until the required rod reading was found. The distance and
azimuth were then read with the transit. This work could all be done with the transit, but it was
greatly enhanced when supplemented with a level used to direct the rod person uphill or downhill.
The work was also speed up by using a piece of flagging or a device that could be adjusted on the
stadia rod to the required ‘grade rod’ reading.
 Controlling point method
 The ‘controlling points’ method was suitable for maps of large area and small scale. The selection
of ground points was very important. The accuracy of the contours depended on the knowledge
and experience of the survey party. The stadia rod shots were taken on critical points where
there were changes in the ground slope (breaklines) and plotted before interpolations were made.
The elevations were obtained with a level to save time in reducing data. Interpolations were
made in much the same way as they were made using the grid method.
3. Cross section method
 It was accomplished using level and
tape or transit-stadia.
 In fairly uniform ground cross
sections were taken from a control
line, center line or base line.
 The sections were plotted with
elevations of each cross section
shot written on the map.
 Contour lines were interpolated
from the sections and plotted on
the map, as in the grid and
‘controlling points’ methods
 The cross- sectional line need not
be always be at right angles to the
main line.
 This method is ideally suited for
road and railway projects.
4. Dirty sheet’ method
 This method was most useful when the terrain was
fairly flat and accurate contour lines had to be
located. It was also used in steep terrain, but
other methods, such as transit-stadia served as
well and were quicker.
The procedure was as follows:
1. Run traverses through the area to be contoured
and station the traverses.
2. Run levels over the traverses.
3. Plot the traverses on convenient size sheets to
the desired scale. Mylar film was very good for
this as it was not affected by moisture.
4. There were several ways of locating the
contours.
 In steep terrain, the hand level and tape method was
most often used. An H.I. was obtained and the rod
reading for each contour elevation was computed. The
rod person moved out at right angles to each station
up or down slope until the desired elevation was
located. The distance was taped and the point was
located on the map.
 If the terrain was fairly level, a transit or level could
be used instead of the hand level. Then you could work
several stations from a single set up.
5. As each contour was located and plotted on the
sheet, they were connected to make up the
topography map.
5. Radial Line Method

 In this method several radial lines

are taken from a point in the area.
 The direction of each line is noted.
 On these lines at selected distances
points are marked and levels
determined.
 This method is ideally suited for
hilly areas. In this survey theodolite
with tacheometry facility is
commonly used.
6. Grid method

 The grid method was very effective in

locating contours in a relatively small area
of fairly uniform slope. The area was
typically divided into squares of 10, 20, 50,
or 100 feet on a side (depending on the
scale of the map and the contour interval
desired). Stakes were set at each
intersection and at any other points of
slope change, such as at breaklines.

 Elevations were set on the corners with

a level. Contours were interpolated
(either by estimation or mathematical
proportion) between the corner elevations
(along the sides of the blocks but
sometimes diagonally also) by estimation, or
by calculated proportional distances. After
the crossing points were located by
interpolation, the crossing points for each
contour were connected. The contour lines
were then smoothed. Small irregularities
were taken out so that the contour lines
were more like the contours on the ground.
7. Photogrammetry

 Topography was plotted from measurements on

aerial photographs.
 This method was advantageous for large and
rugged areas.
 The vast majority of topographic mapping was
accomplished by photographic methods; however
a certain amount of field completion and field
editing had to be done by ground methods.
LOCATING CONTOUR LINES BY INTERPOLATION
Methods:

1. Estimation
 This method is suitable on small – scale maps where the ground form is not too irregular.
 The first step is to make a careful study of positions of the contour points and to try to visualize
the changes in slope of the terrain. Then the contours which appear to be most definitely located
by the plotted points are drawn. Usually the index contour are drawn first and are used as guides
in drawing the intermediate contour.
 The process of interpolating contours by estimation is fast and produce results which are
reasonable if extreme care is exercised, and also if supplemented by approximate mental
computations.

2. Direct calculation (Analytical Method)

 Measure the intervening horizontal distance and proportion the correct position for each line.
3. Mechanical interpolation
 A rubber band marked with a uniform series of marks can be stretched to find the correct interval for each
line.
4. Graphic
 Template Method
 Triangle and Scale method
 Direct calculation (Analytical Method)
 Triangle and Scale Method

Template Method