Dilla University

College of Engineering
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Optics and Optical Communication (ECEg-4291)

Chapter Three
Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
 Signal Degradation in Optical Fibers
Outline
• Attenuation/Fiber Loss
• Nonlinear Effects
• Dispersion

Semester-II, 2017/18 2
 Attenuation
• The attenuation or transmission loss of optical fibers has proved
to be one of the most important factors in bringing about their
wide acceptance in telecommunications.

• As channel attenuation largely determined the maximum

transmission distance prior to signal restoration, optical fiber
communications became especially attractive when the
transmission losses of fibers were reduced below those of the
competing metallic conductors (less than 5dB/km).

Semester-II, 2017/18
 Attenuation Cont’d…..
• Signal attenuation within optical fibers, as with metallic
conductors, is usually expressed in the logarithmic unit of the
decibel.

• The decibel, which is used for comparing two power levels,

may be defined for a particular optical wavelength as the ratio
of the input (transmitted) optical power Pi into a fiber to the
output (received) optical power Po from the fiber as:

Number of decibels (dB) = 10 log 10

Semester-II, 2017/18 4
 Attenuation Cont’d…..
• This logarithmic unit has the advantage that the operations of
multiplication and division reduce to addition and subtraction,
while powers and roots reduce to multiplication and division.

• However, addition and subtraction require a conversion to

numerical values which may be obtained using the relationship:
Pi
= 10(dB /10)
Po
• In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually
expressed in decibels per unit length (i.e. dB/km) following:
Pi
α dB L = 10 log10 P o

Semester-II, 2017/18 5
Example On Attenuation
Example-1:
When the mean optical power launched into an 8km length of fiber
is 120µW, the mean optical power at the fiber output is 3µW.
a. the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the
fiber assuming there are no connectors or splices
b. the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.
c. the overall signal attenuation for a 10km optical link using
the same fiber with splices at 1km intervals, each giving an
attenuation of 1dB
d. the numerical input/output power ratio in (c).

Semester-II, 2017/18 6
Example On Attenuation Cont’d…..
Solution:
a. The overall signal attenuatio n in decibels through t he
fiber is :
Pi 120*10 − 6
Signal Attenuatio n = 10 log10 Po = 10 log 10 3*10 − 6

= 10 log 10 = 16.0 dB
40

b. The signal attenuatio n per kilometer for the fiber may be

simply obtained by dividing the result in (a) by the fiber
length as :
16.0
α dB L = 16.0 dB ⇒ α dB = = 2.0 dB / km
8
Semester-II, 2017/18 7
Example On Attenuation Cont’d…..
Solution:
c. As α dB = 2 dB / km , the loss incurred along 10 km of the

fiber is given by :
α dB L = 2 *10 = 20 dB
However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals)

each with an attenuatio n of 1 dB.

Therefore, the loss due to the splices is 9 dB.

Hence, the overall signal attenuatio n for the link is :

Signal Attenuatio n = 20 + 9 = 29 dB
Semester-II, 2017/18 8
Example On Attenuation Cont’d…..
Solution:
d. The numerical value for the input/outp ut power ratio, can be

obtained as :

Pi
= 10 ( 29 / 10)
Po
Pi
∴ = 794.3
Po

Semester-II, 2017/18 9
 Attenuation Cont’d……..
• A number of mechanisms are responsible for the signal
attenuation within optical fibers.
• These mechanisms are influenced by the material composition,
the preparation and purification technique, and the waveguide
structure.
• They may be categorized within several major areas which
include material absorption, material scattering (linear and
nonlinear scattering), curve and micro-bending losses, mode
coupling radiation losses and losses due to leaky modes.
• There are also losses at connectors and splices.
Semester-II, 2017/18 10
 Material Absorption Losses in Silica Glass Fibers

• Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material

composition and the fabrication process for the fiber, which
results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted optical
power as heat in the waveguide.

• The absorption of the light may be intrinsic (caused by the

interaction with one or more of the major components of the
glass) or extrinsic (caused by impurities within the glass).

Semester-II, 2017/18 11
 Intrinsic Absorption
• An absolutely pure silicate glass has little intrinsic absorption
due to its basic material structure in the near-infrared region.
• However, it does have two major intrinsic absorption
mechanisms at optical wavelengths which leave a low intrinsic
absorption window over the 0.8 to 1.7µm wavelength range.

Semester-II, 2017/18 12
Extrinsic Absorption
• In practical, a major source of signal loss is extrinsic absorption
from transition metal element impurities.
• Chromium and copper, in their worst valence state, can cause
attenuation in excess of 1dB/km in the near-infrared region.
• Transition element contamination may be reduced to acceptable
levels by glass refining techniques such as vapor-phase
oxidation which largely eliminates the effects of these metallic
impurities.
• Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption
due to water (as the hydroxyl or OH ion) dissolved in the glass.
Semester-II, 2017/18 13
Linear Scattering Losses
• Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all
of the optical power contained within one propagating mode to
be transferred linearly (proportionally to the mode power) into a
different mode.
• This process tends to result in fiber loss of the transmitted light
as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which does
not continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated
from the fiber.
• It must be noted that as with all linear processes, there is no
change of frequency on scattering.
Semester-II, 2017/18 14
Fiber Bend Loss
• Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their
paths.
• This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend
exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the
guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to
be radiated from the fiber.
• Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a
critical radius of curvature Rc which may be estimated from:

Semester-II, 2017/18 15
Fiber Bend Loss Cont’d………
• From the above expression, it may be observed that potential
macrobending losses may be reduced by:
i. designing fibers with large relative refractive index
differences
ii. operating at the shortest wavelength possible
• The above criteria for the reduction of bend losses also
apply to single-mode fibers with critical radius of curvature

where λ c is the cutoff wavelength for the single - mode fiber.

Semester-II, 2017/18 16
Fiber Bend Loss Cont’d………

• The part of the mode in the cladding outside the dashed arrowed
line may be required to travel faster than the velocity of light in
order to maintain a plane wavefront. Since it cannot do this, the
energy contained in this part of the mode is radiated away

Semester-II, 2017/18 17
Example on Fiber Bend Loss
Example-2:
Two step index fibers exhibit the following parameters:
a. A multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.50, a
relative refractive index difference of 3% and an operating
wavelength of 0.82µm
b. An 8µm core diameter single-mode fiber with a core refractive
index the same as (a), a relative refractive index difference of
0.3% and an operating wavelength of 1.55µm.
Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending
losses occur in both cases.

Semester-II, 2017/18 18
Example on Fiber Bend Loss Cont’d…….
Solution:
a. The relative refractive index difference is given by :

n1 2 − n 2 2
∆= ⇒ n 2 = n1 − 2∆n1 = 2.25 − 0.06 * 2.25 = 2.115
2 2 2
2
2n1

The multimode fiber critical radius of curvature can be calculated as :

3 * 2.25 * 0.82 *10 −6

= = 9 µm
4π 0.135

Semester-II, 2017/18 19
Example on Fiber Bend Loss Cont’d…….
Solution:
b. Again using the same equation, we have; :

n1 2 − n 2 2
∆= ⇒ n 2 = n1 − 2∆n1 = 2.25 − 0.006 * 2.25 = 2.237
2 2 2
2
2n1

The cutoff wavelengt h for the single - mode fiber is given by :

2πan1 2∆ 2π * 4 *10 −6 *1.5 * 0.06

λc = = = 1.214 µm
2.405 2.405
The critical radius of curvature for the single - mode fiber is given by :

Semester-II, 2017/18 20
Nonlinear Effects Cont’d…..
• The most important types of nonlinear scattering within optical
fibers are stimulated Brillouin and Raman scattering, both of
which are usually only observed at high optical power densities
in long single-mode fibers.
• These scattering mechanisms in fact give optical gain but with a
shift in frequency, thus contributing to attenuation for light
transmission at a specific wavelength.
• Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) may be regarded as the
modulation of light through thermal molecular vibrations within
the fiber.
Semester-II, 2017/18 21
Nonlinear Effects
• Optical waveguides do not always behave as completely linear
channels whose increase in output optical power is directly
proportional to the input optical power.
• Several nonlinear effects occur, which in the case of scattering
cause disproportionate attenuation, usually at high optical
power levels.
• This nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one
mode to be transferred in either the forward or backward
direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency.

Semester-II, 2017/18 22
Nonlinear Effects Cont’d…..
• The scattered light appears as upper and lower sidebands which
are separated from the incident light by the modulation
frequency.
• Brillouin scattering is only significant above a threshold power
density and that threshold power PB is given by:

−3 2 2
PB = 4.4 *10 d λ α dBυ watts
Where :
d : Fiber core diameter λ : the operating wavelength

α dB : Fiber attenuation in dB / km ν : the source bandwidth in GHz

Semester-II, 2017/18 23
Nonlinear Effects Cont’d…..
• Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) is similar to SBS except
that a high-frequency optical phonon rather than an acoustic
phonon is generated in the scattering process.
• Using the same criteria as those specified for the Brillouin
scattering threshold , the threshold optical power for SRS PR in
a long single-mode fiber is given by:
PR = 5.9 *10−2 d 2 λα dB watts

Where :
d : Fiber core diameter λ : the operating wavelength

α dB : Fiber attenuation in dB / km
Semester-II, 2017/18 24
Example on Nonlinear Effects
Example-3:

A long single-mode optical fiber has an attenuation of 0.5dB/km

when operating at a wavelength of 1.3µm. The fiber core diameter
is 6µm and the laser source bandwidth is 600 MHz. Compare the
threshold optical powers for stimulated Brillouin and Raman
scattering within the fiber at the wavelength specified.

Semester-II, 2017/18 25
Example on Nonlinear Effects Cont’d…..
Solution:

The threshold optical power for SBS is given by :

PB = 4.4 *10−3 d 2 λ 2α dBυ = 4.4 *10−3 * 62 *1.32 * 0.5 * 0.6

∴ PB = 80.3 mW
The threshold optical power for SRS is given by :

PR = 5.9 *10−2 d 2 λα dB = 5.9 *10−2 * 62 *1.3 * 0.5

∴ PB = 1.38W
From this example, we can see that Raman threshold is

approximately 17 times larger than Brillouin threshold.

Semester-II, 2017/18 26
Dispersion
• Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for
both digital and analog transmission along optical fibers.

• When considering the major implementation of optical fiber

transmission which involves some form of digital modulation,
then dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause broadening
of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along the channel.

• Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbors,

eventually becoming indistinguishable at the receiver input. The
effect is known as intersymbol interference (ISI).

Semester-II, 2017/18 27
Dispersion Cont’d…….
• Thus, an increasing number of errors may be encountered on
the digital optical channel as the ISI becomes more pronounced.

• The error rate is also a function of the signal attenuation on the

link and the subsequent signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the
receiver.

• However, signal dispersion alone limits the maximum possible

bandwidth attainable with a particular optical fiber to the point
where individual symbols can no longer be distinguished.

Semester-II, 2017/18 28
Dispersion Cont’d…….

Fig. Fiber input digital bit pattern 1011

Semester-II, 2017/18 29
Dispersion Cont’d…….

Fig. Fiber output at a distance L1

Semester-II, 2017/18 30
Dispersion Cont’d…….

Fig. Fiber output at a distance L2> L1

Semester-II, 2017/18 31
Dispersion Cont’d…….
• For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link
the digital bit rate BT must be less than the reciprocal of the
broadened (through dispersion) pulse duration (2τ), i.e.,
1
BT ≤
2τ
• Another more accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate for an
optical channel with dispersion may be obtained by considering
the light pulses at the output to have a Gaussian shape with an
rms width of σ.

Semester-II, 2017/18 32
Dispersion Cont’d…….
• The maximum bit rate is given approximately by:
0.2
BT (max) ≈ bits / sec
σ
• The conversion of bit rate to bandwidth in hertz depends on the
digital coding format used.

• For metallic conductors when a non-return-to-zero code is

employed, the binary 1 level is held for the whole bit period τ.

• In this case there are two bit periods in one wavelength (i.e. 2
bits per second per hertz).

Semester-II, 2017/18 33
Dispersion Cont’d…….
• Hence the maximum bandwidth BW is one-half the maximum
data rate, i.e.,

BT (max) = 2BW

• However, when a return-to-zero code is considered, the binary 1

level is held for only part (usually half ) of the bit period.

• For this signaling scheme the data rate is equal to the bandwidth
in hertz (i.e. 1 bit per second per hertz) and thus BT = BW.

Semester-II, 2017/18 34
Dispersion Cont’d…….

Fig. Schematic illustration of the relationships of the bit rate

to wavelength for digital codes: (a) non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
(b) return-to-zero (RZ)
Semester-II, 2017/18 35
Example on Dispersion
Example-1:
A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of
0.1µs over a distance of 15km. Estimate:
a. the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no
intersymbol interference
b. the pulse dispersion per unit length
c. the bandwidth–length product for the fiber

Semester-II, 2017/18 36
Example on Dispersion Cont’d…..
Solution:
a. The maximum possible optical bandwidth assuming

no ISI may be can be obtained by :

1 1
Bopt = BT = = = 5 MHz
2τ 0.2 *10 −6

b. The dispersion per unit length may be acquired simply by

dividing the total dispersion by the total length of the fiber :

0.1*10 −6
Dispersion = = 6.67ns / km
15

Semester-II, 2017/18 37
Example on Dispersion Cont’d…..
Solution:
c. The bandwidth – length product may be obtained in two ways.

i. By simply multiplying the maximum bandwidth for the fiber

link by its length as :

Bopt L = 5 MHz *15 km = 75 MHz km

ii. From the dispersion per unit length as :

1
Bopt L = −6
= 75 MHz km
2 * 6.67 *10

Semester-II, 2017/18 38
Chromatic Dispersion
• Chromatic or intramodal dispersion may occur in all types of
optical fiber and results from the finite spectral line width of the
optical source.
• Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a
band of frequencies , there may be propagation delay
differences between the different spectral components of the
transmitted signal.
• This causes broadening of each transmitted mode and hence
intramodal dispersion.

Semester-II, 2017/18 39
Chromatic Dispersion Cont’d…
• The delay differences may be caused by the dispersive
properties of the waveguide material (material dispersion) and
also guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide
dispersion).

Semester-II, 2017/18 40
Material Dispersion
• Pulse broadening due to material dispersion results from the
different group velocities of the various spectral components
launched into the fiber from the optical source.

• It occurs when the phase velocity of a plane wave propagating

in the dielectric medium varies nonlinearly with wavelength,
and a material is said to exhibit material dispersion when the
second differential of the refractive index with respect to
2
wavelength is not zero (i.e., d n
≠ 0 ).
dλ 2

Semester-II, 2017/18 41
Waveguide Dispersion
• The wave guiding of the fiber may also create chromatic
dispersion.
• This results from the variation in group velocity with
wavelength for a particular mode.
• Considering the ray theory approach, it is equivalent to the
angle between the ray and the fiber axis varying with
wavelength which subsequently leads to a variation in the
transmission times for the rays, and hence dispersion.
• For a single mode whose propagation constant is β, the fiber
exhibits waveguide dispersion when d 2β
≠0
dλ 2
Semester-II, 2017/18 42
Waveguide Dispersion Cont’d…..

• Multimode fibers, where the majority of modes propagate far

from cutoff, are almost free of waveguide dispersion and it is
generally negligible compared with material dispersion (≈0.1 to
0.2 ns/km).
• However, with single-mode fibers where the effects of the
different dispersion mechanisms are not easy to separate,
waveguide dispersion may be significant.

Semester-II, 2017/18 43
Intermodal Dispersion
• Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion (sometimes
referred to simply as modal or mode dispersion) results from the
propagation delay differences between modes within a
multimode fiber.
• As the different modes which constitute a pulse in a multimode
fiber travel along the channel at different group velocities, the
pulse width at the output is dependent upon the transmission
times of the slowest and fastest modes.

Semester-II, 2017/18 44
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….
• Multimode step index fibers exhibit a large amount of
intermodal dispersion which gives the greatest pulse
broadening.
• However, intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers may be
reduced by adoption of an optimum refractive index profile
which is provided by the near-parabolic profile of most graded
index fibers.
• Hence, the overall pulse broadening in multimode graded index
fibers is far less than that obtained in multimode step index
fibers (typically by a factor of 100).
Semester-II, 2017/18 45
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….

• Thus, graded index fibers used with a multimode source give a

tremendous bandwidth advantage over multimode step index
fibers.

• Under purely single-mode operation there is no intermodal

dispersion and therefore pulse broadening is solely due to the
intramodal dispersion mechanisms.

• Hence single-mode step index fibers exhibit the least pulse

broadening and have the greatest possible bandwidths.

Semester-II, 2017/18 46
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….

• The delay difference δTs between the extreme meridional ray

and the axial ray of a multimode step index fiber can be
approximated by:
Ln1 ∆ L( NA ) 2
δ Ts ≈ ≈
c 2n 1c
where :
L : Fiber length
n1 : refractive index of the core
c : velocity of light in vacuum
∆ : the relative refractive index difference
NA : numerical aperture for the fiber
Semester-II, 2017/18 47
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….

• The rms impulse response of a multimode step index fiber if it

is assumed that intermodal dispersion dominates and there is a
uniform distribution of light rays over the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ θa can
be estimated by:

Ln1 ∆
L( NA ) 2
σs ≈ ≈
2 3c 4 3n1 c

• The pulse broadening is directly proportional to the relative

refractive index difference ∆ and the length of the fiber L.

Semester-II, 2017/18 48
Example on Intermodal Dispersion
Example-2:
A 6 km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a
core refractive index of 1.5 and a relative refractive index
difference of 1%. Estimate:
a. the delay difference between the slowest and fastest modes
at the fiber output
b. the rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on
the link
c. the maximum bit rate that may be obtained without
substantial errors on the link assuming only intermodal
dispersion
Semester-II, 2017/18 49
Example on Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….
Solution:
a. The delay difference is given by :
Ln1 ∆ 6 * 103 * 1.5 * 0.01
δTs ≈ = 8
= 300 ns
c 2.998 *10
b. The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion
can be obtained by :
Ln1 ∆
1 6 * 103 * 1.5 * 0.01
σs = = 8
= 86.7 ns
2 3c 2 3 2.998 *10
c. The maximum bit rate can be obtained using the calculated rms
pulse broadening above as :
0.2 0.2
BT (max) = = −9
= 2.3 Mbps
σ s 86.7 *10
Semester-II, 2017/18 50
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….

• Intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers is minimized with

the use of graded index fibers.

• Hence, multimode graded index fibers show substantial

bandwidth improvement over multimode step index fibers.

• The dramatic improvement in multimode fiber bandwidth

achieved with a parabolic or near-parabolic refractive index
profile is highlighted by consideration of the reduced delay
difference between the fastest and slowest modes for this
graded index fiber δTg.
Semester-II, 2017/18 51
Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….

• Using a ray theory approach the delay difference is given by:

Ln1 ∆2 ( NA)4
δTg ≈ ≈ 3
2c 8n1 c

• The best minimum theoretical intermodal rms pulse broadening

for a graded index fiber is given by:

Ln1 ∆2
σg =
20 3c

Semester-II, 2017/18 52
Example on Intermodal Dispersion
Example-3:

Compare the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to intermodal

dispersion for the multimode step index fiber of Example-2 with
the corresponding rms pulse broadening for an optimum near-
parabolic profile graded index fiber with the same core axis
refractive index and relative refractive index difference.

Semester-II, 2017/18 53
Example on Intermodal Dispersion Cont’d…….
Solution:
In Example - 2, σ s over 6 km of fiber is 86.7 ns. Hence
the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the
multimode step index fiber is :
σ s (1 km) = 86.7 = 14.4 ns / km
L 6
The rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the corresponding
graded index fiber is :
Ln1 ∆2 10 3 *1.5 * (0.01) 2
σ g (1 km) = =
8
= 14.4 ps / km
20 3c 20 3 * 2.998 *10
Semester-II, 2017/18 54
Overall Intermodal Dispersion

• The overall dispersion in multimode fibers comprises both

chromatic and intermodal terms.

• The total rms pulse broadening σT is given by:

σT = σc +σn
2 2

• Here, σc is the intramodal or chromatic broadening and σn is the

intermodal broadening caused by delay differences between the
modes (i.e. σs for multimode step index fiber and σg for
multimode graded index fiber).

Semester-II, 2017/18 55
Exercise on Overall Intermodal Dispersion
Exercise:

A multimode step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.3 and a

core refractive index of 1.45. The material dispersion parameter for
the fiber is 250 ps/nm/km which makes material dispersion the
totally dominating chromatic dispersion mechanism. Estimate

a. the total rms pulse broadening per kilometer when the fiber
is used with an LED source of rms spectral width 50 nm

b. the corresponding bandwidth–length product for the fiber

Semester-II, 2017/18 56
 Assignment-II
1. The mean optical power launched into an optical fiber link is
1.5mW and the fiber has an attenuation of 0.5dB/km. Determine
the maximum possible link length without repeaters (assuming
lossless connectors) when the minimum mean optical power level
required at the detector is 2µW.

2. The numerical input/output mean optical power ratio in a 1km

length of optical fiber is found to be 2.5. Calculate the received
mean optical power when a mean optical power of 1mW is
launched into a 5km length of the fiber (assuming no connectors).

Semester-II, 2017/18 57
Assignment-II Cont’d…..

3. A 15km optical fiber link uses fiber with a loss of 1.5dB/km.

The fiber is jointed every kilometer with connectors which
give an attenuation of 0.8dB each. Determine the minimum
mean optical power which must be launched into the fiber in
order to maintain a mean optical power level of 0.3µW at the
detector.

Semester-II, 2017/18 58
Assignment-II Cont’d…..

4. A single-mode step index fiber with a core refractive index of

1.49 has a critical bending radius of 10.4mm when illuminated
with light at a wavelength of 1.30µm. If the cutoff wavelength
for the fiber is 1.15µm calculate its relative refractive index
difference.

Semester-II, 2017/18 59
Assignment-II Cont’d…..

5. An 8km optical fiber link without repeaters uses multimode

graded index fiber which has a bandwidth-length product of
400MHz km. Estimate:

a. the total pulse broadening on the link

b. the rms pulse broadening on the link

It may be assumed that a return to zero code is used.

Semester-II, 2017/18 60
Assignment-II Cont’d…..

6. An 11km optical fiber link consisting of optimum near-

parabolic profile graded index fiber exhibits rms intermodal
pulse broadening of 346ps over its length. If the fiber has a
relative refractive index difference of 1.5%,

a. Evaluate the core axis refractive index.

b. Hence determine the numerical aperture for the fiber

Semester-II, 2017/18 61
 The
End!

Questions?
Semester-II, 2017/18 62