Scribd
Upload
46 views

The Chemical Level of Organization

1. Atoms are the smallest units of matter and consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms combine to form molecules through ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or hydrogen bonds. 2. Organic compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are important components of living cells. Carbohydrates serve as an energy source, lipids include fats and phospholipids, proteins perform many functions, and nucleic acids store and process genetic information. 3. Chemical reactions in cells are controlled by enzymes and allow the cell to capture, store, and use energy in the form of ATP through catabolism and anabolism.

Uploaded by

Aizat Farhan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
46 views

The Chemical Level of Organization

1. Atoms are the smallest units of matter and consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms combine to form molecules through ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or hydrogen bonds. 2. Organic compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are important components of living cells. Carbohydrates serve as an energy source, lipids include fats and phospholipids, proteins perform many functions, and nucleic acids store and process genetic information. 3. Chemical reactions in cells are controlled by enzymes and allow the cell to capture, store, and use energy in the form of ATP through catabolism and anabolism.

Uploaded by

Aizat Farhan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 50

The Chemical Level of

Organization
Chapter 2
Atoms and Molecules
 Atoms are the smallest units of matter,
they consist of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
Structure of an Atom
 An element consists entirely of atoms
with the same number of protons.
 Within an atom, an elecron cloud
surround the nucleus.
 The atomic mass of an atom is equal to the
total number of protons and neutron in its
nucleus.
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element
whose nuclei contain different number of
neutrons.
 The atomic weight of an element takes into
account the abundance of its various
isotopes.
 Electrons occupy a series of electron
shells around the nucleus.
 The number of electrons in the outer
shell determine an atom’s chemical
properties.
Chemical bonds and chemical
compounds
 An ionic bond results from the
attraction between ions: atoms that
have gained or lost electrons.
 Cations are positively charged
 Anions are negatively charged.
 Atoms can combine to form a molecule
 Combinations of atoms of different
elements form a compound
 Some atoms share electrons to form a
molecule held together by covalent
bonds.
 Sharing one pair of electron creates a
single covalent bond
 Sharing two pairs forms a double
covalent bond
 Unequal sharing of electrons creates a
polar covalent bond.
 A hydrogen bond is the attraction
between a hydrogen atom with slight
positive charge and a negatively
charged atom in another molecule or
within the same molecule
 Hydrogen bond can affect the shaes
and properties of molecules
Chemical Notation
 Chemical notation allows us to
describe reactions between reactant
tha generate one or more products.
Chemical Reactions
 Metabolisms refers to all the chemical
reaction in the body. Our cells
capture, store and use energy to
maintain homeostasis and support
essential functions.
Basic energy concepts

 Work involves movement of an object


or a change in its physical structure.
 Energy is the capacity to perform
work.
 There are two major types of energy:
knetic and potential.
 Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
 Potential energy is stored energy that
results from the position or structre of
an object.
 Conversions from potential to kinetic
energy are not 100% efficient.
 Every energy exchange produces heat.
Types of Reactions
 A chemical reaction may be classified
as
 Decomposition
 Synthesis
 Exchange
 Exergonic reaction release heat
 Endergonic reactions absorb heat
 Cells gain energy to power their
functions by catabolism: the
breakdown of complex molecules
 Much of this energy supports
anabolism, the synthesis of new
organic molecules
Reversible Reactions
 Reversible reactions consist of
simultaneous synthesis and
decomposition reactions.
 At equilibrium the rates of these two
opposing reactions are in balance.
Acids and Bases
 A acid releases hydrogen ions
 A base removes hydrogen ions from a
solution
pH
 The pH of a solution indicates the
concentration of hydrogen ions it
contains.
 Solutions can be classified as neutral
(pH of 7)acidic (pH < 7) or basic
(alkaline) (pH > 7) on the basis of pH
 Buffers maintain pH within normal
limits (7.35-7.45 in most body fluids)
by releasing or absorbing hydrogen
ions.
Inorganic Compounds
 Nutrients and metabolites can be
broadly classified as organic or
inorganic compounds
 Living cells in the body generate
carbon dioxide and consume oxygen.
Water and it Properties
 Water is the most important inorganic
component of the body
 Water is an excellent solvent, has a
high heat capacity, and participates in
the metabolic reactions of the body.
 Many inorganic compounds will
undergo ionization, or dissociation in
water to form ions.
Inorganic Acids and Bases
 Inorganic acids found in the body
include hydrochloric acid carbonic
acid, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid.
 Sodium hydroxide is an inorganic base
that may form within the body.
Salts
 A salt is an ionic compound whose
cation is not H+ and whose anion is not
OH-
 Salts are electrolytes, compounds that
dissociate in water and conduct an
electrical current.
Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds contain carbon and
hydrogen, and usually oxygen as well.
 Large and complex organic molecules
include carbohydrates, lipids proteins
and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are most important as
an energy source for metabolic
process.
 The three major types are
monosaccharides (simple sugars),
dissacharides and polysaccharides.
 A. the straight -
chain formula for
glucose
 B. The ring form
that is most
common in nature.
 An abbreviated
diagram fo the ring
form.
Lipids
 Lipids are water-insoluble molecules
that include fats, oils, and waxes.
 There are four important classes of
lipids: fatty acids, fats, steroids, and
phospholipids.
 Triglycerides (fats) consists of three
fatty acid molecules attached to a
molecule of glycerol
 Cholesterol is a precursor of steroid
hormones and is a component of cell
membranes
 Phospholipids are
the most abundant
components of cell
membranes.
Proteins
 Proteins perform a great variety of
function in the body.
 Important types of protein include
structural proteins, contractile
proteins, transport proteins, enzymes,
hormones and antibodies.
 Proteins are chains of amino acids
linked by peptide bonds.
 The sequence of amino acids and the
interactions of their R groups influence
the final shape of the protein
molecules.
 The shape of the protein determines
its function.
 Each protein works best at an optimal
combination of temperature and pH.
 Activation energy is the amount of
energy required to start a reaction.
Proteins called enzymes control many
chemical reaction within our bodies.
Enzymes are catalysts--substances that
accelerate chemical reaction without
themselves being permanently
changed.
 The reactants in an enzymatic
reaction, called substrates, interact to
form a product by bonding to the
enzyme at the active site.
Nucleic Acids
 Nucleic acids store and process
information at the molecular level.
 There are two kinds of nucleic acids:
DNA and RNA
 Nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides.
 Each nucleotide contains a sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogen base.
 The sugar is always ribose or
deoxyribose.
 The nitrogenous bases found in DNA are
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine. In RNA uracil replaces
thymine.
High-Energy Compounds
 Cells store energy in high-energy
compounds.
 The most important high-energy compound is
ATP
 When energy is available, cells make ATP by
adding a phosphate group to ADP
 When energy is needed ATP is broken down
to ADP and phosphate.

You might also like