INTRODUCTION TO

CAPACITOR BANKS
Effects of reactive power
 Poor transmission efficiency
Losses in all power system elements from the power station generator to the utilization
devices increase due to reactive power drawn by the loads, thereby reducing transmission
efficiency.
 Poor voltage regulation
Due to the reactive power flow in the lines, the voltage drop in the lines increases due to
which low voltage exists at the bus near the load and makes voltage regulation poor.
 Low power factor
The operating power factor reduces due to reactive power flow in transmission lines.
 Need of large sized conductor
The low power factor due to reactive power flow in line conductors necessitates largesized
conductor to transmit same power when compared to the conductor operating at high power
factor.
 Increase in KVA rating of the system equipment
 Reduces their power transfer capability
Cntd……..
Shunt Capacitor Bank function
There is an increasing demand on utilities to improve the power quality due the sensitivity of electronics
employed in manufacturing and communication systems.
Utilities also strive to maximize the power transfer efficiency of lines by maintaining a power factor close
to unity.

The application of shunt capacitor banks has become a proven and favoured tool for:
 Adding reactive loads or installed in power systems to provide reactive power compensation,
 Reducing costs and optimizing power transmission.

Some advantages of shunt capacitor bank installation are:

 Compensation of the system’s inductive reactive power
 Power factor correction
 Improving voltage control on heavily loaded transmission and distribution systems
 Harmonic filtering
and HOW it works…
 Uncompensated

 Compensated
Configuration….
Grounded wye
 Provides a low impedance to ground for lightning
surge currents
 Provides a degree of protection from surge voltages
 Reduces recovery voltages for switching equipment
(approximately twice normal peak voltage)
 Provides a low impedance to ground for triple and
other harmonic currents

Grounded Double wye

Construction……

Unit or “Can”
Discharge Resistor:
The residual voltage across the terminals should reduce to 50V DC or less within 5
minutes after disconnection from the voltage source.
 Daily cycle of operation…
 When the load levels are high :
The shunt capacitor would typically be connected to the transmission or distribution lines
to counteract the inductive loads on the system.
 But as the load drops :
it is critical that the capacitors be disconnected from the system to avoid over voltages
that could cause damage to equipment and unexpected outages
 Frequent switching:
So capacitor bank switching is one of the most frequent utility operations, potentially
occurring multiple times per day and hundreds of time per year throughout the system,
depending on the need for system voltage/var support from the banks.

“A typical transmission breaker may switch a few times per year and interrupt short-
circuits a few times per year. Capacitor switching devices, in general, see several orders
of magnitude more operations in its life than line breakers. Typical expectation is 10,000
operations in a 40 year life for capacitor switching, compared to 200 operations in the
same 40 year life for a line, transformer, or bus section breaker”
Switching transients……
 A power substation consists of power transformers, power capacitors, switchgear,
lightning arresters, instrument transformers and interconnecting bus work, along with
associated structures and low voltage power and control circuits.

 These components comprise a highly complex interconnected network of resistances,

self and mutual inductances, and capacitances. At any given moment substantial
amounts of energy are stored in the electric and magnetic fields associated with these
components

 Any sudden change in the energy distribution in the circuit, such as switching a
capacitor bank, will give rise to a disturbance which will be propagated rapidly in
varying magnitudes through all parts of the network.

 “A common source of high energy transients is the energizing, de-energizing, or short

circuiting of a capacitor bank, which generally gives rise to a high frequency, high
current oscillatory transient as the voltage on the capacitor rapidly adjusts to a new
voltage level”
 Cntd….
 Capacitor banks have the capability of storing large quantities of energy during each half
cycle of the alternating current.

 During switching operations, the rapid flow of these large blocks of energy in and out of
capacitor banks gives rise to high current and high voltage switching transients.

 This abnormal voltages and currents which accompany the switching of the capacitor
bank can cause a variety of problems for circuit components which are not designed to
withstand them
 The problem is severe when,
LOW Source impedances at the busses throughout the system
&
The increasingly common practice of installing two or more capacitor banks at one location.
This switching causes..
 Unwanted, high frequency, voltage and current transients that may cause
damage to equipment , nuisance equipment operation, or disrupt customer
processes.

 Capacitor bank energization inrush currents

 Capacitor bank outrush currents due to Back to Back switching

 Outrush currents due to faults in the vicinity of capacitor banks

Energization of single bank
INRUSH CURRENT TRANSIENTS:

• The current waveform leads the voltage waveform by 90 degree.

• If the switching device was to close and energize the capacitive load at voltage zero, the current
might be expected to jump immediately to its maximum value.

• Since this “instantaneous” change is not possible, there is a very fast rise in current that
overshoots the maximum value.
• A capacitor switching transient is a normal system event that can occur whenever a capacitor is energized. Typically,
de-energizing a capacitor does not cause a system transient.
• On energization, the transient occurs because of the difference between the system voltage and the voltage on the
capacitor.
• A basic characteristic of capacitors is that the voltage across them cannot change instantaneously. If a capacitor is at
zero voltage and system voltage is applied to it, the system voltage will be pulled down to nearly zero momentarily,
there will then be a capacitor inrush current as the capacitor charges.

• The voltage on the capacitor will then recover and overshoot the system voltage by roughly the same amount that it
dropped, and then oscillate around the 60 Hz system voltage. It is possible for this overvoltage to reach nearly 2.0
per unit (twice the peak system voltage) if the capacitor is initially uncharged and the switching occurs at the peak
voltage. System impedance usually keeps this overvoltage from reaching the theoretical peak.

• The capacitor voltage will continue to oscillate around the 60 Hz fundamental waveform, with the oscillation
gradually getting damped out, usually within a cycle depending on the system resistance. The magnitude of the
transient and its characteristic oscillation frequency will depend on the characteristics of the electric power
system.

• The magnitude of the transient will vary based on two variables at the time of the switching. These variables are
the initial voltage on the capacitor (trapped charge, usually close to zero if the capacitor has been allowed to
discharge) and the instantaneous system voltage at the time of the switching.

• The greater the difference between these two voltages, the greater the magnitude of the transient. The worst case
transient will occur when the system voltage is at peak voltage and there is a trapped charge on the capacitor of
peak system voltage at the opposite polarity.
Trapped charge may occur if:

1. The discharge resistors failed or became disconnected.

2. The capacitors were switched manually before they were allowed to discharge.
3. The capacitor control unit switched the contactors too quickly (improper settings), before the
capacitors had adequate time to discharge their trapped charge.
4. Contactor bounce/chatter or circuit breakers restrike during opening.

• Both of these events may lead to multiple trapped charge scenarios causing significant transients
and voltage escalation due to trapped charge on a capacitor. These types of events typically lead to
catastrophic failure of equipment.
• With regard to this last point, it is important that contactors or breakers be capable of interrupting
capacitive current, especially at medium voltage. The interrupting duty depends on the
configuration of the capacitor bank and the system, and can be as high as 3 per unit (of the normal
line-to-neutral voltage), or even higher (3.46 pu) if there is a failed capacitor
The source impedance (or system impedance) depends on
the short-circuit power (Scc) of the system at the
capacitor bank bus bar , given by

The total time-varying current during the energization of

single capacitor banks is compound by two components:
1.steady state and
2.transient period
The steady state component, which oscillates at 50 Hz, is
generally neglected in the calculation of the inrush currents

The transient component of the inrush current is given by I peak = 2000A F= 500 Hz
Back-to-back switching of capacitor banks
INRUSH CURRENTS TRANSIENTS
 It is common to divide large capacitor banks in smaller shunt capacitor banks, to provide
flexibility and reliability to the reactive compensation system.
 When two or more capacitor banks are located close to one another the transients become
more severe. This is due to the fact that when the second capacitor bank is energized, it
appears to the system as a short-circuit. This will result in any capacitor bank nearby to
discharge into the recently closed second bank. In addition, the two capacitors in parallel
create a larger capacitive load and result in drawing a much larger inrush current that if
there was only one bank.
 It may produce high mechanical and dielectric stresses
on the capacitor bank components and other
equipment in its vicinity.
 the inrush currents associated with energization
of a capacitor bank with other ones in operation
can achieve up to 100 per unit at frequencies
of 2000 to 20,000 kHz.
Therefore, the inrush current associated with energization of the capacitor bank “N”, with
“N-1” capacitor banks in operation in the same bus, is given by:

The worst condition is when the voltage across the capacitor bank is in its peak value
• This situation occurs when a second capacitor is switched on in close (electrical) proximity to a previously
energized capacitor.

• In this case a higher frequency transient initially occurs as the previously energized capacitor shares its
charge with the newly energized capacitor.

• The previously energized capacitor pushes current to the other capacitor as a source in parallel with the
utility. When they are in close proximity to each other, there is often very little impedance between
capacitors.

• This allows a very high outrush current from the previously charged capacitor and inrush to the charging
capacitor.

• After this initial inrush, there is another transient as the pair of capacitors cause the voltage to oscillate
around the 60 Hz fundamental voltage, as described above, as if they were a single capacitor bank
Inrush current associated with energization of the back-to-back capacitor banks

I peak= 3200A F =10 KHz

The total time-varying current during the energization of a capacitor bank is compound by three components:
1.steady state,
2.contribution of the system
3.contribution of the capacitor banks in operation in the same bus.
Each component has a different peak value and frequency. Since the third component is more significant
than the other ones, the steady state component and the contribution of the system to the inrush current may
be neglected.
Discharge of Shunt Capacitor Banks to Faults
OUTRUSH CURRENT TRANSIENT
 When a short circuit occurs near to the shunt capacitor bank, it will discharge its energy through the low
impedance path provided by the fault.
 The magnitude and frequency of the outrush current are of the same order as the inrush currents
associated with energization of back-to-back capacitor banks,
 Which can achieve up to 100 per unit at frequencies of 2000 to 20,000 kHz.
 The worst condition is when the voltage across the capacitor bank is in its peak value.
 Voltage transients….
• When a de-energized capacitor bank is connected to a circuit whose line-to-neutral voltage is at
peak of the 50 hertz wave, the line-to-neutral voltage of the capacitor bank will oscillate
around the peak system voltage at a frequency ranging up to about 1 kilohertz.
• As the current increases, there is a steep drop in system voltage toward zero, followed by a fast
voltage recovery (overshoot). The voltage and the current waveforms will oscillate at a high
frequency eventually settling down to their steady state
• The high frequency voltage transient is superimposed on the 50 Hz fundamental waveform and
can reach 2.0 times the normal system voltage peak value

The frequency of oscillation is

Where:
f = frequency in hertz.
L ■ source inductance, henrys.
C = capacitance of the capacitor bank,
farads.
• If another capacitor bank was previously connected to the bus, then the behaviour of the transient
will be somewhat different.
• A much higher frequency transient on the order of up to 10 kHz will be superimposed upon the
transient which results from the source impedance. Initially, the voltages on the previously
energized capacitor banks and the newly energized capacitor bank will oscillate about a voltage, V
1, where:

C initial = total capacitance connected to bus before switching.

C final = total capacitance connected to bus after switching.
V = Peak phase to neutral voltage of bus.

• This level is the starting point for the source transient which will appear after the back-
to-back transient has died away.
• Since the initial voltage on the combined capacitor banks is higher in this case than in
the previous case, the magnitude of the resulting oscillations will be reduced.
De-energization of banks..
 During the interruption of capacitive currents there is a probability that there may be a
Re-ignition (resumption of current less than ¼ cycle after current interruption) or
Restrike (resumption of current ¼ cycle after current interruption)
 which may lead to undesirable over voltages or high frequency transients that may cause damage to
the switching device or capacitor cans and affect system power quality.
 Disconnecting a fully charged capacitor bank does not, in itself, generate a transient anywhere in the
circuit, except across the contacts of the circuit breaker itself. Here, the transient recovery voltage
will rise to a maximum value of 2 per unit within one-half cycle after the switch opens, if the switch
opened with peak voltage on the capacitor.
 The result would be that the arc in the circuit breaker would restrike before the recovery voltage had
reached 2 per unit.
 This would essentially constitute a re-energization of the capacitor bank with what is normally termed
a trapped charge on the bank. The normal energizing transient would continue with the only
difference being that the capacitor voltage would oscillate about the system voltage with a peak
magnitude of 3 per unit instead of 2 per unit as in the previous case. At the point when the voltage on
the capacitor reaches 3 per unit the current would cross zero and would again be extinguished.
Another half cycle later the voltage difference across the contacts would be 4 per unit, and a restrike
at this point would give a peak voltage on the capacitor of 5 per unit. In theory this process could
continue indefinitely;
 If a restrike occurs when another capacitor bank is still connected to the bus, the response is considerably more
complicated.
 At the time of restrike the capacitors may be fully charged at opposite polarity. Therefore, the peak voltage across the
contacts can reach twice the normal peak line-to-neutral voltage of the bus.
 When the restrike occurs the current transient will, therefore, have twice the magnitude of the ordinary back-to-back
energizing transient, but will have the same frequency. However, restriking in the back-to-back situation does not
produce overvoltage as great as restriking in the single energization case since the voltages will oscillate around a
magnitude considerably less than the peak line-to-neutral voltage.
 Path of these transients…& Effects..
 The ways in which a capacitor switching transients can enter other substation equipment include:
1.Ground potential rise
2.Inductive and capacitive coupling with overhead wire
3.Through instrument transformers such as CTs & PTs

GROUND POTENTIAL RISE:

 Ground potential rise is defined as a substantial difference in potential between two points in the
system ground network as a result of high ground currents. This condition arises when the high
surge current associated with capacitor bank switching flows into the station ground by way of the
grounded neutral of the capacitor.

 The voltage across the ground mat depends both on its resistance and its reactance. Ground
conductors are usually of large size and of low resistance, and at the frequencies involved with
capacitor switching the reactance predominates
 The peak ground potential can then be found as follows;

V = system line-to-ground voltage, volts RMS

Lgrd, = inductance of the ground mat, henrys.
Ltot = total inductance of the system, henrys.

• A ground potential rise is coupled into physical equipment such as structures and fences by virtue of their
being grounded at discrete points which have potential differences between them.

• A surge does not pose a significant threat to structures themselves, although it can burn fence fabric or
joints on metal structures. However, it does pose a threat to low voltage circuits and personnel in close
proximity to the structures.

• A man can be subjected to this surge by contacting two different points in the ground circuit. This can
occur if one touches the structure which is grounded at a point remote from where one is standing
• The effect of ground potential rise on low voltage circuits is somewhat more complex since it depends to
a degree on the location of the grounds, if any, in the circuit.

• If the circuit is grounded in the control room, as in the case of a current circuit or AC power circuit, a
potential can exist between the circuit and ground near the remote end of the cables.

• This voltage can appear at a number of places, such as, across the cable Insulation, and across the
insulation to ground of relay coils and contacts.

• If the circuit is grounded at the remote end, as in the case of a potential circuit, the surge voltage
appears across devices in the control room such as relays, switches, and indicating lights.

• If a circuit has more than one ground it can become a part of the ground return circuit and large
currents can flow in it.

• These currents will depend upon the impedance of the circuit and can also induce substantial voltages in
adjacent circuits
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Any transient current in a conductor gives rise to a magnetic field directed around the conductor according
to the right-hand screw rule.

• This magnetic flux links other objects in the area unless they are perpendicular to the conductor. The
voltage gradient in the device will be oriented in a direction parallel to the conductor containing the surge
current the magnitude of the voltage gradient is equal to M di/dt, where M is the mutual inductance and i
is the transient current.

• This voltage increases with frequency and current magnitude and decreases with an increase in angle to or
distance from the conductor carrying the surge.

• If the low voltage cable or a structural member is oriented parallel to the bus conductor and is not short
circuited from end to end, a transient current in the overhead conductor will induce a corresponding
transient voltage longitudinally in the cable or structural member.

L, = peak current in the bus conductor, amperes.

M = mutual inductance, henry.
f = frequency of the surge current in the bus connector,
 CT SECONDARY VOLTAGE
During normal operation and during faults, the voltage is normally well below the saturation level of the CT as the
current circuit is usually designed with this in mind.
However, during capacitor switching, transient frequencies upwards of 10 kilohertz and currents upwards of
15,000 amperes are commonly encountered.
If the current transformer secondary voltage is examined through an oscilloscope, it will be seen that although its
RMS value is quite low, it contains one positive and one negative spike each cycle. These spikes coincide with the
point at which the flux in the current transformer passes through zero.

During this very brief fraction of a cycle, the CT is not saturated and the flux is passing from one polarity to
another at a rate similar to that which would be experienced if the CT were not saturated at all.

It can be seen, therefore, that the secondary voltage resulting from this rapid change in flux should be on the same
order of magnitude as the voltage that would be calculated using the unsaturated impedances.

These spikes can be translated into a phase-to-ground phenomenon. Since the current circuit itself is grounded,
the full voltage of the spike will appear from the terminals of the first device in the
string to ground. The spikes can also be transmitted through a set of delta-connected auxiliary CT's into another
circuit which can make tracing their origin somewhat more difficult.

EFFECTS OF CURRENTS TRANSIENTS ON CB

• Contact erosion & pre-mature nozzle failure

Inrush currents likely to damage interrupter contacts over time causing pre-mature failure or
increased maintenance
• Heating of arc gasses
• Shock waves
• Contact welding during energization
• Weld spot may cause arc restrike
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS AND POTENTIAL DEVICES

• A wound type potential transformer is designed to reproduce its primary voltage faithfully under a wide variety of
steady state and transient conditions, although its performance is, of course, best at 50 hertz. For this reason, the
maximum voltage that could be produced from the secondary during capacitor switching would be about two to
three per unit on a 120 volt phase, which corresponds to two to three per unit on the primary. This is not normally a
problem for any relay or metering device.

• Coupling capacitor potential devices, on the other hand, are considerably more sensitive to frequency. They are
based on the principle of a capacitive voltage divider, using a capacitor of about .01 microfarads at 69 KV with the
potential tap taken off at a point about 5 KV above ground. This potential is then stepped down through a
transformer and a power factor correcting network to the normal operating voltage of the circuit.

• Ideally, although the coupling capacitor would drop considerably in impedance at the higher frequencies
encountered in capacitor switching, the ratio would not change and, therefore, the input would be faithfully
reproduced as desired. However, a problem arises when an inductive impedance is inserted between the base of the
coupling capacitor and the station ground.

• There are two ways that this can occur. One impedance that exists in every case without exception is the impedance
of the lead from the base of the potential device to the ground grid. Potential devices are commonly mounted on
structures as much as 8 ft. or more in height, and at transient frequencies an 8 ft. long conductor constitutes a
substantial impedance. In addition, there may be more impedance between the base of the structure and the ground
of the power capacitor.
The inductance of the potential device ground can be easily approximated if the return
path for the current can easily be identified. An additional source of inductance that sometimes appears in
this circuit is the drain coil used with carrier current relaying. This coil is inserted between the base of the
coupling capacitor and ground in order to prevent the power line carrier
signal from being shorted out while still effectively grounding the device at 60 hertz.

The effect will be approximately the same as a local ground potential rise in the vicinity of the potential
device, as it will raise the potential of both phase and ground conductors in the cable going back to the control
house. Voltages induced by this method could theoretically approach the bus voltage; however, surge
protectors and spill gaps in the potential device usually limit the voltage to a somewhat lower value.
Effects……
 A capacitor switching transient is propagated at a wide range of magnitudes to nearly
every component of the substation.
 Its effect at any point in the circuit will depend on its magnitude at that point, the
insulation level or surge withstand capability of that component, and the prevailing
electrical conditions in the substation at that moment.
 The seriousness of these effects is determined by the end result of the transient.
These results fall into several different categories; namely,
Damage to equipment
Misoperation of equipment,
 which includes both failures to operate and undesired operations, and injury to
personnel.
 In addition to the cost of repairs, both temporary and permanent damage to
equipment can result in loss of service to customers, loss of local or remote control of
substation devices, loss of local or remote metering at substations, or loss of
communications.
 The most probable effects of misoperations are loss of service to customers and
additional damage to unprotected devices. The extent of human exposure can vary
from mild discomfort to a serious injury.
 Circuit breaker…
 The problem that is encountered with circuit breakers when switching large capacitor
banks does not arise from the inrush currents which occur when energizing a bank, but
rather from the high transient recovery voltages which occur across the contacts when
de-energizing a capacitor bank.
 So ,What is Transient Recovery Voltage?

 Thus TRV can be defined as voltage appearing

across a circuit breaker after a switching action.
Typical of every TRV also has high amplitude and
high frequency
 TRV is a point by point difference of voltage at
the incoming side and at the outgoing side of a
circuitbreaker.
 When a circuit breaker interrupts, incoming side
or the side to bus or supply is connected tries to
return to power frequency voltage level and the
outgoing side depending on what is connected
also oscillates
• During the interruption process the arc rapidly loses conductivity as the instantaneous current
approaches zero. Within a few microseconds after current zero, current stops flowing in the circuit.
• The power system response to the current interruptions is what generates TRV. The difference in the
power system response voltage from the source side to the load side of the circuit breaker is the TRV.
• The breaking operation is successful if the circuit breaker is able to withstand the TRV and the power
frequency recovery voltage. TRV is then related to the power system response to an interruption of
current in a circuit very close to a power frequency current zero.
• The nature of the TRV is dependent on the circuit being interrupted, wether primarily resistive,
capacitive or inductive, (or some combination).
• Highest peak TRV met during capacitive current switching
When a circuit breaker interrupts the current to a large capacitor bank, the interruption
usually takes place at or near the time that the current passes through zero.

Since this current zero coincides with a voltage peak (due to the 90 phase shift), this
means that full peak phase to- ground voltage will be left on the capacitor bank.

One-half cycle or a little over 8 milliseconds later, the bus voltage will reach a peak of
the opposite polarity. The voltage across the breaker contacts is then 2 per unit based on
the normal peak phase to- ground voltage of the system.

The interrupters in many power circuit breakers are simply unable to seal against a
recovery voltage of this magnitude.

Therefore, a succession of restrikes may follow. This causes the thermal capability of the
interrupters to be exceeded, and damage to, or total destruction of, the circuit breaker
may result.
• The circuit breakers and capacitors are the most sensitive equipment concerning the transient currents and
voltages associated with the switching of shunt capacitor banks.

• The capacitors are generally designed to withstand an overcurrent up to 100 times its rated current. The
level of overcurrent is closely related with the life expectancy of the capacitor unit.

• For transient currents of 100 times the rated current, the maximum number of switchings shall not exceed
1000 times per year.

• However, for transient currents of 30 times the rated current, the maximum number of switching increases
up to 100,000 times per year.

• For circuit breakers, according to international standards, the transient current and frequency shall not
exceed the figures presented in the table below.
Effects of Transient Recovery Voltages on Circuit Breaker
 Transient recovery voltages appear on the system for a very short duration of time and assume very high values.
These rapid changes have deleterious effects on the devices in the system.
Insulation Failures
 TRV is voltage which appears across the circuit breaker on the system when it interrupts current, and are especially
dangerous when short circuits are interrupted. TRV causes the insulation of the circuit breaker to be stressed and
can result in breakdown. The classical examples of the breakdown of insulation are external flashover between
phase and ground, or between a phase and another. TRV causes the air around to be stressed to higher levels thus
resulting in breakdown.
Re-ignition and Re-strikes
 When the circuit breaker is interrupting a fault, it results in arcing in the interrupting medium. During the process of
interruption the arcing medium is trying to regain its insulation property. For the interruption to be successful the
interrupting medium should withstand this fast rising recovery voltage.
 Thus, there is a race in the interrupting medium to go from conducting state to insulating state, with the TRV, if the
rate of rise of TRV is more than speed with which the medium returns to insulating state the arcing medium
breakdown causing current to continue to flow in the circuit breaker, if speed of medium is higher the interruption is
successful. This process of establishment of current is called re-ignition and refers to re-ignition of arc in the circuit
breaker.
 Re-ignition generally occurs almost immediately after the current zero, is generally because the arc plasma
containing conducting ions re-establishes current.
 TRV, if it very high will result in the arcing medium which has returned to insulating state to stressed. If his field
created across the contacts is very high a dielectric breakdown may take place causing the interrupting medium to
become conducting and carry current. This process of establishing current is called restrike. This generally occurs
about a half cycle later to the current interruption. This phenomenon occurring internally to the circuit breaker is
akin to insulation failure external to the circuit breaker
REDUCING THE SEVERITY OF CAPACITOR SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
 There is no known way to eliminate capacitor switching transients completely.
 The magnitude and frequency of the switching surge can be reduced by inserting an impedance into the
circuit in series with the capacitor bank being energized.
 The impedance may be an inductance, a resistance, or a combination of the two; and it may be
inserted by connecting a discrete impedance into the circuit or by changing the circuit configuration at
the substation through appropriate switching moves to increase the circuit impedance.
 ADDITION OF INDUCTIVE REACTANCE:
TRANSIENT LIMITING INDUCTORS
 The magnitude and frequency of the capacitor switching transient are both proportional to ,
where L is the series inductance of the circuit and resistance is neglected.
 In the case of single bank switching, this inductance is the inductance between the capacitor bank and
the voltage source or generating station, and in the case of back-to-back switching, it is the inductance
between the two capacitor banks.
 Such an inductor would necessarily be an air core device in order to avoid saturation effects.
 The required inductance of the device would be determined by the particular circuit configuration of
the substation.
 The design would be similar, if not identical, to the design of a typical power line wave trap used in
carrier relaying applications
Damping reactors
 limit the inrush and outrush currents of capacitor banks.
 Air-Core Reactors (ACR) provide a linear response of impedance versus current which is essential for numerous
applications. The dry type design is maintenance free and environmentally friendly.
 This reactor is series connected with one or more capacitor banks to limit the inrush currents that occur during
their switching operation. It is designed to offer a specified impedance and to withstand the rated current and the
fault current in the event of a short-circuit associated with a high frequency discharge current of the capacitor
bank.
 Circuit breakers will almost always interrupt the current at a forced current zero or the first current zero following
contact separation. At this point, the contact separation is usually sufficient to withstand the recovery voltage
imposed upon it. They have no inherent capability for mitigating voltage or current transients that occur during
energization of the capacitor bank.
 The inrush current peak, especially in back-to-back capacitor switching applications, can be quite high such that
ANSI standards have recommended limiting this inrush current to 16kA peak at a frequency of up to 4.2 kHz by
applying series reactors in the circuit. Even with the application of reactors, multiple events will eventually result
in contact wear and nozzle punctures. The reason for concern about this arcing damage is the fact that the effects
are cumulative over time and interrupter life is significantly reduced.
MOMENTARY CAPABILITIES, TRANSIENT OVERCURRENT
For frequent back-to-back capacitor bank switching, peak capacitor unit current should be held to a lower value as
indicated in figure below
1- Lifting lug
2- Spacers (cooling ducts)
3- Cross arms (spider)
4- Terminal
5- Insulator
6- Extension brackets (pedestals)
• Since the magnitude and frequency of the inrush current associated with energization of single capacitor banks are not
significant, the use of a current limiting reactor may not be necessary.
• However, for a system with very high short-circuit power (e.g., small source impedances) damping reactors may be
required.
The calculation of the reactance to be introduced in the circuit to limit the inrush current magnitude and frequencies to
admissible values for the capacitor and switching devices are as follows

• Due to the high currents and frequencies, the energization of back-to-back capacitor banks always requires the insertion of
damping reactors .
The calculation of the reactance to be introduced in the circuit to limit the inrush current magnitude and frequencies to
admissible values for the capacitors and switching devices are as follows
INFLUENCE OF THE Q-FACTOR OF THE REACTOR
 Introducing resistance always has the effect of damping out the natural oscillations of a circuit. How
quickly it occurs will depend on the amount of the losses or, in other words, the value of resistance
relative the values of inductance and capacitance.
 Concerning the air-core current limiting reactors installed in series with the shunt capacitor banks,
their losses are represented by insertion of a series resistance in the circuit.
 Both the reactance and the AC series resistance of a damping reactor depend on the frequency, and
the relation between them provides the Q-factor r of the reactor, given by:

 The damping of the inrush and outrush currents is evaluated by the Q-factor value at transient
frequency. Typically, the Q-factor of a damping reactor decreases with the increasing of frequency.

 The effective resistance depends on various factors, such as: reactor design, geometry of the coil
(diameter and height), number and size of internal conductors of the winding, material of the conductor
(aluminium or cooper) and numbers of turns of each layer of the winding.
How to Size the Inductors
 Sizing the fixed inductors should be done in such a way that at a minimum the
inrush and outrush currents through the switching device will not exceed the
device’s capability.
 The product of the current peak and frequency (I x f limits) defined in IEEE C37.06
standards [7] have been used to size transient limiting inductors for shunt capacitor
banks.
 Rate of Rise of current-di/dt (ixf)

 C37.06-2009 [6] no longer requires outrush inductors for circuit breakers having a
Class C1 or C2 capacitance current rating as long as the peak current is below 2.6 x
the short-circuit rating of the breaker
Drawbacks of Installing TLIs
 Transient Recovery Voltages
 When transient limiting inductors are installed for capacitor banks to limit inrush and
outrush currents there is a potential that if a fault occurs in such a way that the inductor
(transient limiting inductor) limits the fault current interrupted by the switching device
(with minimal capacitance between the breaker and inductor) excessive TRV’s can be
imposed on the circuit breaker.
 Transient recovery voltage will be imposed on the circuit breaker that will often exceed
standard circuit breaker TRV ratings if no mitigation is installed to limit the transient
recovery voltage component driven by the natural frequency of the inductor. This
phenomenon is somewhat similar to a short line fault.
Tuning…
 Installing a TLI in a capacitor bank will create a series resonant circuit. One needs to be aware of
existing harmonics (usually very high order) that might excite this resonant circuit and produce
unwanted loading on the capacitor and TLI.
 A simple single frequency filter consists of a shunt capacitor with a fixed inductance in series. This may
be the intended design or may simply be a side effect of adding a transient limiting inductor to a
capacitor bank installation

Typically only odd harmonics propagate through the

electric system. These are divided into positive (1,7,13),
negative (5,11,17), and zero (3,9,15) sequence
harmonics. The zero sequence or triplen harmonics will
only circulate through a grounded system. Thus, single
frequency filter banks for positive and negative
sequence harmonics are typically operated wye-
ungrounded, while filter banks for zero sequence
harmonics should be operated wye-grounded.

Simple harmonic filter.