Chapter 2

Assemblers

Source Object
Program Assembler Code Linker

Executable
Code

Loader
1
Outline
 2.1 Basic Assembler Functions
 A simple SIC assembler
 Assembler tables and logic
 2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features
 Instruction formats and addressing modes
 Program relocation
 2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
 2.4 Assembler Design Options
 Two-pass
 One-pass
 Multi-pass
2
2.1 Basic Assembler Functions
 Figure 2.1 shows an assembler language program
for SIC.
 The line numbers are for reference only.
 Indexing addressing is indicated by adding the modifier
“X”
 Lines beginning with “.” contain comments only.
 Reads records from input device (code F1)
 Copies them to output device (code 05)
 At the end of the file, writes EOF on the output device,
then RSUB to the operating system

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4
5
6
2.1 Basic Assembler Functions
 Assembler directives (pseudo-instructions)
 START, END, BYTE, WORD, RESB, RESW.
 These statements are not translated into machine
instructions.
 Instead, they provide instructions to the assembler
itself.

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2.1 Basic Assembler Functions
 Data transfer (RD, WD)
 A buffer is used to store record
 Buffering is necessary for different I/O rates
 The end of each record is marked with a null character
(0016)
 Buffer length is 4096 Bytes
 The end of the file is indicated by a zero-length record
 Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)
 RDREC, WRREC
 Save link (L) register first before nested jump

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 Figure 2.2 shows the generated object code for
each statement.
 Loc gives the machine address in Hex.
 Assume the program starting at address 1000.
 Translation functions
 Translate STL to 14.
 Translate RETADR to 1033.
 Build the machine instructions in the proper format (,X).
 Translate EOF to 454F46.
 Write the object program and assembly listing.

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11
12
2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 A forward reference
 10 1000 FIRST STL RETADR 141033
 A reference to a label (RETADR) that is defined later in
the program
 Most assemblers make two passes over the source
program
 Most assemblers make two passes over source
program.
 Pass 1 scans the source for label definitions and
assigns address (Loc).
 Pass 2 performs most of the actual translation.

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 The object program (OP) will be loaded into
memory for execution.
 Three types of records
 Header: program name, starting address, length.
 Text: starting address, length, object code.
 End: address of first executable instruction.

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 The symbol ^ is used to separate fields.
 Figure 2.3
1E(H)=30(D)=16(D)+14(D)

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 Assembler’s Functions
 Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine
language equivalents
 STL to 14
 Convert symbolic operands (referred label) to their
equivalent machine addresses
 RETADR to 1033
 Build the machine instructions in the proper format
 Convert the data constants to internal machine
representations
 Write the object program and the assembly listing

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 Example of Instruction Assemble
 Forward reference
 STCH BUFFER, X

549039
8 1 15
opcode x address
m
(54)16 1 (001)2 (039)16

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 Forward reference
 Reference to a label that is defined later in the program.

Loc Label OP Code Operand

1000 FIRST STL RETADR

1003 CLOOP JSUB RDREC

… … … …
1012 J CLOOP
… … … …
1033 RETADR RESW 1

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2.1.1 A simple SIC Assembler
 The functions of the two passes assembler.
 Pass 1 (define symbol)
 Assign addresses to all statements (generate LOC).
 Save the values (address) assigned to all labels for Pass
2.
 Perform some processing of assembler directives.
 Pass 2
 Assemble instructions.
 Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD.
 Perform processing of assembler directives not done
during Pass 1.
 Write the OP (Fig. 2.3) and the assembly listing (Fig.
2.2). 20
2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic
 Our simple assembler uses two internal tables: The
OPTAB and SYMTAB.
 OPTAB is used to look up mnemonic operation codes and
translate them to their machine language equivalents.
 LDA→00, STL→14, …
 SYMTAB is used to store values (addresses) assigned to
labels.
 FIRST→1000, COPY→1000, …
 Location Counter LOCCTR
 LOCCTR is a variable for assignment addresses.
 LOCCTR is initialized to address specified in START.
 When reach a label, the current value of LOCCTR gives the
address to be associated with that label.
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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic
 The Operation Code Table (OPTAB)
 Contain the mnemonic operation & its machine
language equivalents (at least).
 Contain instruction format & length.
 Pass 1, OPTAB is used to look up and validate
operation codes.
 Pass 2, OPTAB is used to translate the operation codes
to machine language.
 In SIC/XE, assembler search OPTAB in Pass 1 to find
the instruction length for incrementing LOCCTR.
 Organize as a hash table (static table).

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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic
 The Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
 Include the name and value (address) for COPY 1000
FIRST 1000
each label. CLOOP 1003
 Include flags to indicate error conditions ENDFIL 1015
 Contain type, length. EOF 1024
THREE 102D
 Pass 1, labels are entered into SYMTAB, ZERO 1030
along with assigned addresses (from RETADR 1033
LOCCTR). LENGTH 1036
BUFFER 1039
 Pass 2, symbols used as operands are look RDREC 2039
up in SYMTAB to obtain the addresses.
 Organize as a hash table (static table).
 The entries are rarely deleted from table.

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2.1.2 Assembler Tables and Logic
 Pass 1 usually writes an intermediate file.
 Contain source statement together with its assigned
address, error indicators.
 This file is used as input to Pass 2.
 Figure 2.4 shows the two passes of assembler.
 Format with fields LABEL, OPCODE, and OPERAND.
 Denote numeric value with the prefix #.
#[OPERAND]

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Pass 1

25
26
Pass 2

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

 Indirect addressing
 Adding the prefix @ to operand (line 70).
 Immediate operands
 Adding the prefix # to operand (lines 12, 25, 55, 133).
 Base relative addressing
 Assembler directive BASE (lines 12 and 13).
 Extended format
 Adding the prefix + to OP code (lines 15, 35, 65).
 The use of register-register instructions.
 Faster and don’t require another memory reference.

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Figure 2.5: First

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Figure 2.5: RDREC

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Figure 2.5: WRREC

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler
Features
 SIC/XE
 PC-relative/Base-relative addressing op m
 Indirect addressing op @m
 Immediate addressing op #c
 Extended format +op m
 Index addressing op m, X
 register-to-register instructions COMPR
 larger memory → multi-programming (program
allocation)

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2.2 Machine-Dependent Assembler
Features
 Register translation
 register name (A, X, L, B, S, T, F, PC, SW) and their values
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9)
 preloaded in SYMTAB
 Address translation
 Most register-memory instructions use program counter
relative or base relative addressing
 Format 3: 12-bit disp (address) field
 Base-relative: 0~4095
 PC-relative: -2048~2047
 Format 4: 20-bit address field (absolute addressing)
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2.2.1 Instruction Formats & Addressing Modes

 The START statement

 Specifies a beginning address of 0.
 Register-register instructions
 CLEAR & TIXR, COMPR
 Register-memory instructions are using
 Program-counter (PC) relative addressing
 The program counter is advanced after each instruction
is fetched and before it is executed.
 PC will contain the address of the next instruction.
10 0000 FIRST STL RETADR 17202D
TA - (PC) = disp = 30 - 3 = 2D
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2.2.1 Instruction Formats & Addressing
Modes
40 0017 J CLOOP 3F2FEC
0006 - 001A = disp = -14
 Base (B), LDB #LENGTH, BASE LENGTH
160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003
TA-(B) = 0036 - (B) = disp = 0036-0033 = 0003
 Extended instruction
15 0006 CLOOP +JSUB RDREC 4B101036
 Immediate instruction
55 0020 LDA #3 010003
133 103C +LDT #4096 75101000
 PC relative + indirect addressing (line 70)
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2.2.2 Program Relocation
 Absolute program, relocatable program

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2.2.2 Program Relocation

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2.2.2 Program Relocation
 Modification record (direct addressing)
 1 M
 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified,
relative to the beginning of the program.
 8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half
bytes.
M^0000007^05

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2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler
Features

 Write the value of a constant operand as a part of

the instruction that uses it (Fig. 2.9).
 A literal is identified with the prefix =
45 001A ENDFIL LDA =C’EOF’ 032010
 Specifies a 3-byte operand whose value is the character
string EOF.
215 1062 WLOOP TD =X’05’ E32011
 Specifies a 1-byte literal with the hexadecimal value 05

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44
RDREC

45
WRREC

46
2.3.1 Literals
 The difference between literal and immediate
 Immediate addressing, the operand value is assembled
as part of the machine instruction, no memory
reference.
 With a literal, the assembler generates the specified
value as a constant at some other memory location.
The address of this generated constant is used as the
TA for the machine instruction, using PC-relative or
base-relative addressing with memory reference.
 Literal pools
 At the end of the program (Fig. 2.10).
 Assembler directive LTORG, it creates a literal pool that
contains all of the literal operands used since the
previous LTORG.
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48
RDREC

49
WRREC

50
2.3.1 Literals
 When to use LTORG (page 69, 4th paragraph)
 The literal operand would be placed too far away from
the instruction referencing.
 Cannot use PC-relative addressing or Base-relative
addressing to generate Object Program.
 Most assemblers recognize duplicate literals.
 By comparison of the character strings defining them.
 =C’EOF’ and =X’454F46’

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2.3.1 Literals

 Allow literals that refer to the current value of the

location counter.
 Such literals are sometimes useful for loading base
registers.
LDB =*
; register B=beginning address of statement=current LOC
BASE *
; for base relative addressing
 If a literal =* appeared on line 13 and 55
 Specify an operand with value 0003 (Loc) and 0020
(Loc).

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2.3.1 Literals
 Literal table (LITTAB)
 Contains the literal name (=C’EOF’), the operand value
(454F46) and length (3), and the address (002D).
 Organized as a hash table.
 Pass 1, the assembler searches LITTAB for the specified
literal name.
 Pass 1 encounters a LTORG statement or the end of the
program, the assembler makes a scan of the literal
table.
 Pass 2, the operand address for use in generating OC is
obtained by searching LITTAB.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
 Allow the programmer to define symbols and
specify their values.
 Assembler directive EQU.
 Improved readability in place of numeric values.

+LDT #4096
MAXLEN EQU 4096
+LDT #MAXLEN
 Use EQU in defining mnemonic names for registers.
 Registers A, X, L can be used by numbers 0, 1, 2.
RMO A, X

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
 The standard names reflect the usage of the
registers.
BASE EQU R1
COUNT EQU R2
INDEX EQU R3
 Assembler directive ORG
 Use to indirectly assign values to symbols.
ORG value
 The assembler resets its LOCCTR to the specified value.
 ORG can be useful in label definition.

55
2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
 The location counter is used to control assignment
of storage in the object program
 In most cases, altering its value would result in an
incorrect assembly.
 ORG is used
 SYMBOL is 6-byte, VALUE is 3-byte, and FLAGS is 2-byte.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
STAB SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS
(100 entries) 6 3 2

1000 STAB RESB 1100

1000 SYMBOL EQU STAB

1006 VALUE EQU STAB +6
1009 FLAGS EQU STAB +9

 Use LDA VALUE,X to fetch the VALUE field form the table
entry indicated by the contents of register X.

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
STAB SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS
(100 entries) 6 3 2
1000 STAB RESB 1100
ORG STAB
1000 SYMBOL RESB 6
1006 VALUE RESW 1
1009 FLAGS RESB 2
ORG STAB+1100

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
 All terms used to specify the value of the new
symbol --- must have been defined previously in
the program.
BETA EQU ALPHA
ALPHA RESW 1
Need 2 passes

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2.3.2 Symbol-Defining Statements
 All symbols used to specify new location counter
value must have been previously defined.
ORG ALPHA
BYTE1 RESB 1
BYTE2 RESB 1
BYTE3 RESB 1
ORG
ALPHA RESW 1
 Forward reference
ALPHA EQU BETA
BETA EQU DELTA
DELTA RESW 1
Need 3 passes
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2.3.3 Expressions
 Allow arithmetic expressions formed
 Using the operators +, -, *, /.
 Division is usually defined to produce an integer result.

 Expression may be constants, user-defined symbols, or

special terms.
106 1036 BUFEND EQU *
 Gives BUFEND a value that is the address of the next

byte after the buffer area.

 Absolute expressions or relative expressions
 A relative term or expression represents some value
(S+r), S: starting address, r: the relative value.

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2.3.3 Expressions
107 1000 MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER
 Both BUFEND and BUFFER are relative terms.

 The expression represents absolute value: the difference

between the two addresses.

 Loc =1000 (Hex)

 The value that is associated with the symbol that

appears in the source statement.
 BUFEND+BUFFER, 100-BUFFER, 3*BUFFER represent
neither absolute values nor locations.
 Symbol tables entries

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2.3.4 Program Blocks
 The source program logically contained main,
subroutines, data areas.
 In a single block of object code.
 More flexible (Different blocks)
 Generate machine instructions (codes) and data in a
different order from the corresponding source
statements.
 Program blocks
 Refer to segments of code that are rearranged within a
single object program unit.
 Control sections
 Refer to segments of code that are translated into
independent object program units. 63
2.3.4 Program Blocks
 Three blocks, Figure 2.11
 Default, CDATA, CBLKS.
 Assembler directive USE
 Indicates which portions of the source program blocks.
 At the beginning of the program, statements are
assumed to be part of the default block.
 Lines 92, 103, 123, 183, 208, 252.
 Each program block may contain several separate
segments.
 The assembler will rearrange these segments to gather
together the pieces of each block.

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Main

65
RDREC

66
WRREC

67
2.3.4 Program Blocks
 Pass 1, Figure 2.12
 A separate location counter for each program block.
 The location counter for a block is initialized to 0 when
the block is first begun.
 Assign each block a starting address in the object
program (location 0).
 Labels, block name or block number, relative addr.
 Working table
Block name Block number Address Length
(default) 0 0000 0066 (0~65)
CDATA 1 0066 000B (0~A)
CBLKS 2 0071 1000 (0~0FFF)

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69
70
71
2.3.4 Program Blocks
 Pass 2, Figure 2.12
 The assembler needs the address for each symbol
relative to the start of the object program.
 Loc shows the relative address and block number.

 Notice that the value of the symbol MAXLEN (line 70) is

shown without a block number.

20 0006 0 LDA LENGTH 032060
0003(CDATA) +0066 =0069 =TA
using program-counter relative addressing
TA - (PC) =0069-0009 =0060 =disp

72
2.3.4 Program Blocks
 Separation of the program into blocks.
 Because the large buffer is moved to the end of the object
program.
 No longer need extended format, base register, simply a
LTORG statement.
 No need Modification records.
 Improve program readability.
 Figure 2.13
 Reflect the starting address of the block as well as the
relative location of the code within the block.
 Figure 2.14
 Loader simply loads the object code from each record at
the dictated.
 CDATA(1) & CBLKS(1) are not actually present in OP.
73
2.3.4 Program Blocks

74
75
2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking
 Control section
 Handling of programs that consist of multiple control
sections.
 A part of the program.
 Can be loaded and relocated independently.
 Different control sections are most often used for
subroutines or other logical subdivisions of a program.
 The programmer can assemble, load, and manipulate
each of these control sections separately.
 Flexibility.
 Linking control sections together.

76
2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking
 External references
 Instructions in one control section might need to refer
to instructions or data located in another section.
 Figure 2.15, multiple control sections.
 Three sections, main COPY, RDREC, WRREC.
 Assembler directive CSECT.

 EXTDEF and EXTREF for external symbols.

 The order of symbols is not significant.

COPY START 0
EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFEND, LENGTH
EXTREF RDREC, WRREC

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79
80
2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking
 Figure 2.16, the generated object code.
15 0003 CLOOP +JSUB RDREC 4B100000
160 0017 +STCH BUFFER,X 57900000
 RDREC is an external reference.
 The assembler has no idea where the control section
containing RDREC will be loaded, so it cannot assemble
the address.
 The proper address to be inserted at load time.
 Must use extended format instruction for external
reference (M records are needed).
190 0028 MAXLEN WORD BUFEND-BUFFER
 An expression involving two external references.

81
82
83
84
2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking
 The loader will add to this data area with the address of
BUFEND and subtract from it the address of BUFFER.
(COPY and RDREC)
 Line 190 and 107, in 107, the symbols BUFEND and
BUFFER are defined in the same section.
 The assembler must remember in which control section
a symbol is defined.
 The assembler allows the same symbol to be used in
different control sections, lines 107 and 190.
 Figure 2.17, two new records.
 Defined record for EXTDEF, relative address.
 Refer record for EXTREF.

85
86
2.3.5 Control Sections & Program Linking
 Modification record
 M
 Starting address of the field to be modified, relative to

the beginning of the control section (Hex).

 Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes.

 Modification flag (+ or -).

 External symbol.

M^000004^05+RDREC
M^000028^06+BUFEND
M^000028^06-BUFFER
 Use Figure 2.8 for program relocation.

87
88
89
2.4 Assembler Design Options
2.4.1 Two-Pass Assembler

 Most assemblers
 Processing the source program into two passes.
 The internal tables and subroutines that are used only
during Pass 1.
 The SYMTAB, LITTAB, and OPTAB are used by both
passes.
 The main problems to assemble a program in one
pass involves forward references.

90
2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers
 Eliminate forward references
 Data items are defined before they are referenced.
 But, forward references to labels on instructions cannot
be eliminated as easily.
 Prohibit forward references to labels.
 Two types of one-pass assembler. (Fig. 2.18)
 One type produces object code directly in memory for
immediate execution.
 The other type produces the usual kind of object
program for later execution.

91
92
93
94
2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers
 Load-and-go one-pass assembler
 The assembler avoids the overhead of writing the object
program out and reading it back in.
 The object program is produced in memory, the
handling of forward references becomes less difficult.
 Figure 2.19(a), shows the SYMTAB after scanning line
40 of the program in Figure 2.18.
 Since RDREC was not yet defined, the instruction was
assembled with no value assigned as the operand
address (denote by ----).

95
96
97
2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers
 Load-and-go one-pass assembler
 RDREC was then entered into SYMTAB as an undefined
symbol, the address of the operand field of the
instruction (2013) was inserted.
 Figure 2.19(b), when the symbol ENDFIL was defined
(line 45), the assembler placed its value in the SYMTAB
entry; it then inserted this value into the instruction
operand field (201C).
 At the end of the program, all symbols must be defined
without any * in SYMTAB.
 For a load-and-go assembler, the actual address must
be known at assembly time.

98
2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers
 Another one-pass assembler by generating OP
 Generate another Text record with correct operand address.
 When the program is loaded, this address will be inserted
into the instruction by the action of the loader.
 Figure 2.20, the operand addresses for the instructions on
lines 15, 30, and 35 have been generated as 0000.
 When the definition of ENDFIL is encountered on line 45,
the third Text record is generated, the value 2024 is to be
loaded at location 201C.
 The loader completes forward references.

99
100
2.4.2 One-Pass Assemblers
 In this section, simple one-pass assemblers
handled absolute programs (SIC example).

101
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers
 Use EQU, any symbol used on the RHS be defined
previously in the source.
ALPHA EQU BETA
BETA EQU DELTA
DELTA RESW 1
 Need 3 passes!

 Figure 2.21, multi-pass assembler

102
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

103
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

104
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

105
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

106
2.4.3 Multi-Pass Assemblers

107