CHAPTER 35

AN INTRODUCTION
TO FLOWERING
PLANTS

Prepared by
Brenda Leady, University of Toledo

Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc. Permission required
for reproduction or display. 1
Overview of Plant Structure
1. Two major regions of flowering plants
a) Root system
anchor plants in the ground
absorb water and minerals
store excess sugar
transport water, minerals, sugar, hormones
produce hormones

b) Shoot system - consists of stems, leaves, buds,

flowers, fruits
for photosynthesis
transport of materials between leaves, flowers,
fruits, and roots
reproduction
hormone synthesis

2. Two groups of flowering plants

a) Monocot - grasses, lilies, orchids
b) Dicot - deciduous trees and bushes 2
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Alternation of generations
 Gametophyte (haploid)
 Microscopicin flowering plants
 Produce gametes by mitosis
 Sporophyte (diploid)
 Large“plant” in flowering plants
 Produces spores by meiosis

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 Plant embryo is a sporophyte that lies
dormant within a seed with a supply
of stored food and a seed coat
 May lay dormant for long periods until
conditions are favorable
 Embryo grows into seedling and then
mature plant

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 Growth – increase in size or weight
 Development – increase in number or
organs, accompanied by differentiation
 Meristem – region of undifferentiated cells
producing new tissues by cell division
 Basic plant organs – roots, stems, and
leaves – contain several types of tissues

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 Roots – provide anchorage in the soil and
foster efficient uptake of water and
minerals
 Stem – produce leaves and branches and
bear the reproductive structures
 Leaves – foliage leaves specialized for
photosynthesis

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 Radicle, embryonic root, first organ to
emerge from germinating seed
 Provides water and minerals for growth
 Hypocotyl produces cotyledons
 Eudicots– 2 seed leaves
 Monocots – 1 seed leaf
 Endosperm provides food for early embryo
growth

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Plant Growth and Development

1. Two categories of cells

a) meristem cells - embryonic, undifferentiated, capable
of cell division
b) differentiated cells - are specialized in structure and
function, and usually don’t divide
Meristem cells: apical meristems - located at the ends
of roots and shoots
lateral meristems or cambia - form
cylinders that run parallel to the long
axis of roots and stems

2.Two forms of plant growth

a) Primary growth - occurs through mitotic cell division
of apical meristem cells by differentiation of the
resulting daughter cells; increase in length
b) Secondary growth - occurs through mitotic cell
division of lateral meristem cells, and differentiation
of their daughter cells; increase in diameter 12
Development
 Shoot apical meristem (SAM)
 Rapidlydividing cells at shoot apices
 Produces shoot system
 Stems, leaves and other organ systems
 Root apical meristem (RAM)
 Alsorapidly dividing cells
 Produces root system
 Roots and root branches

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Vegetative growth
 Production of tissues by SAM and RAM and
growth of mature plant
 Plant shoots produce vegetative buds –
miniature shoots having a dormant SAM
 Under favorable conditions, buds produce new
stems and leaves
 Indeterminate growth – SAMs continuously
produce new stem tissue and leaves as long as
conditions are favorable

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Reproductive development
 Mature plants produce flowers, seeds and fruits
 Flowers produced by determinate growth –
growth of limited duration
 Flower tissues enclose and protect tiny male
and female gametophytes
 Fruits enclose seeds and function in seed
dispersal

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Seed-to-seed lifetime
 Annuals – plants that die after producing
seeds during their first year of life; e.g. corn
 Biennials – plants that do not reproduce the
first year but may the following year
 Perennials – plants that live for more than 2
years, often producing seed each year after
maturity

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1) Distinctive architecture
 2 features
1. Upper, apical pole and a lower, basal pole
 SAM at upper pole, RAM at basal pole
 Apical-basal polarity
 Originates during embryo development
2. Radial symmetry
 Stem and root cylindrical
 Leaves and flower parts in whorls or spirals

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2) Primary meristems
 SAM and RAM produce additional
meristematic tissue that increases plant
length and produces new organs
 Primary meristems produce primary
tissues and organs of diverse types

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 SAM and RAM both produce
 Protoderm – generates dermal tissue
 Procambium – produces vascular tissues
 Ground meristem – produces ground tissues
defined by location
 Plant cell specialization and tissue
development do not depend much on the
lineage of a cell or tissue
 Chemical influences are much more
important
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Plant Tissues and Cell Types
1. Three tissue systems
a) dermal tissue - covers the outer surface of the plant
body
b) ground tissue system - consists of all the non-dermal
and nonvascular tissues
c) vascular tissue - transports water, minerals, sugars,
and plant hormones

a. Dermal tissue system

Two types: a) epidermis - outermost layer
cuticle - cells secreted by epidermal cells
that reduces evaporation of water from the plant
b) periderm - replaces the epidermal tissue on
the roots and stems of woody plants as they
age; composed of cork cells (form the protective
outer layer of the bark of trees, and woody
shrubs, and the woody covering of their roots). 22
b. Ground tissue system - makes up the bulk of a young plant
a) Parenchyma - thin-walled cells that typically carry most of the
metabolic products of plants; for photosynthesis; storage
of sugars and starches, and secretion of hormones
b) Collenchyma - consists of elongated, polygonal cells;
alive at maturity but cannot divide
c) Sclerenchyma - consists of cells with thick, hardened
secondary walls, reinforced with a stiffening
substance called lignin; support and strengthen the
plant body

Parenchyma cells

Layer of epidermal cells showing

the stomata 23
Collenchyma cells

Sclerenchyma cells

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c. Vascular tissue system
a) Xylem
b) Phloem

Xylem - conducts water and minerals from roots to shoots in

tubes that are made from one of 2 types of cells:
tracheids and vessel elements

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Phloem - transports sugars, amino acids, and hormones

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Stem development and structure
 New primary stem tissues arise by the cell division
activities of primary meristems located near the bases
of SAMs
 Epidermis develops at the stem surface
 Produces a waxy cuticle (reduces water loss)
 Cortex – composed of parenchyma tissue
 Composed of only one cell type, parenchyma cells
 Stores starch in plastids
 Stem parenchyma also has the ability to undergo cell
division (meristematic capacity) to heal damage

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 Stems also contain
 Collenchyma tissue composed of
collenchyma cells
 Sclerechyma tissue composed of fibers and
sclerids
 Vascular tissue made of xylem and phloem
arranged in vascular bundles
 Ring in eudicots
 Scattered in monocots

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 X-section of a dicot stem

X-section of a monocot stem

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Leaf development and structure
 Young leaves produced at the side of SAMs in leaf
primordia
 Flattening expands surface area for light collection
 Being thin helps shed excess heat
 Bilaterally symmetrical
 Upper adaxial (stem facing) side
 Pallisade parenchyma absorbs sunlight efficiently
 Lower abaxial (away from stem) side
 More stomata
 Spongy parenchyma has air spaces to foster gas exchange

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Root development and structure
 Eudicots – taproot system with a main root
that produces branch roots
 Monocots – fibrous root system with
multiple roots
 Adventitious roots – produced on the
surface of stems of monocots and
eudicots

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3) Ever-young stem cells
 Plant meristems include stem cells
 Term stem cell used for plant meristem
cells that remain undifferentiated but can
produce new tissues
 Plant stem cell divides to produce one cell
that remains unspecialized and another
cell that is capable of differentiating into
various types of specialized cells

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Plant Shoot Apical Meristem Size Is
Genetically Controlled
 Normal Arabidopsis SAM consists of several hundred stem
cells organized into at least three distinct cell regions having
different functions
 Central zone consists of stem cells that divide but remain
undifferentiated
 Normal growth depends on maintaining normal size of
central zone and SAM
 Central zone cells make CLAVATA3 that controls the size of
the zone
 Loss of CLAVATA3 causes peripheral zone cells to become
central zone cells
Shoot system
 Includes all of a plant’s stems, branches and
leaves
 Also produces flowers and fruits
 Phytomere – shoot module
1. Stem node – leaves emerge
2. Internode – between adjacent nodes
3. Leaf
4. Axillary meristem – generate axillary buds for
lateral shoots

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Hormones
 Molecules that influence development at a site
distinct for production
 Auxin – controls production of leaf primordia
 Accumulates in particular apical region increasing
expansion gene expression
 Gibberellic acid – produced by leaf primordia
not producing KNOX
 Stimulatescell division and cell enlargement so
young leaves grow larger

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Leaf adaptations
 Leaf form
 Simple leaves – only one blade, advantageous in
shade by providing maximal light absorption
 Complex or compound leaves – dissected into leaflets,
common in hot environments for heat dissipation
 Leaf venation
 Eudicot leaves have pinnate or palmate venation
 Netted veins provide more support to the leaf
 Monocot leaves have parallel venation

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 Leaf surface features
 Cuticle on epidermis helps avoid desiccation
 Filter UV radiation, reduce microbe and animal
attack, and self-cleaning
 Guard cells regulate stomatal opening and
closing
 Trichomes offer protection from excessive
light, ultraviolet radiation, extreme air
temperature, or attack by herbivores

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Elle and Associates Investigated the Cost to Datura
wrightii of Producing Sticky Leaf Trichomes
 Some plants “sticky” – have glandular trichomes
 Others “velvety” with similar nonglandular trichomes
 Sticky dominant to velvety
 Sticky trichomes may deter certain herbivores but may
be costly when herbivores not present
 Hypothesized that sticky plants might produce fewer
seeds than velvety plants, because plant photosynthetic
products are diverted from reproduction
 Data supported the initial hypothesis
Modified leaves
 Most leaves function primarily in
photosynthesis
 Can be modified for other roles
 Tendrils
 Tough scales that protect buds
 Poinsetta “petals”
 Cactus spines

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Stem vascular tissue
 Herbaceous plants produce mostly
primary vascular tissues
 Woody plants produce primary and
secondary vascular tissue
 Woody plants begin as herbaceous seedling
with only primary vascular systems

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 Primary vascular tissue
 Primary xylem
 Unspecialized parenchyma cells
 Stiff fibers for structural support
 Tracheids and vessel elements conduct water and
dissolved minerals (not living cells)
 Primary phloem
 Transports organic compounds and certain
minerals
 Sieve elements (living cells)
 Companion cells aid seive element metabolism
 Parenchyma cells
 Supportive fibers

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 Secondary vascular tissue
 Secondary xylem – wood
 Secondary phloem – inner bark
 Bark has both outer bark (mostly dead
cork cells) and inner bark (secondary
phloem)
 Secondary vascular tissues produced by
two types of secondary
 Vascularcambium
 Cork cambium

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 Vascular cambium
 Produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem
 Secondary xylem conducts most of a woody plant’s
water and minerals may function several years
 Usually only the current year’s production of
secondary phloem is active in food transport
 Cork cambium
 Produces cork
 Cork cells dead when mature and layered with
lignin and suberin

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Modified stems
 Rhizomes- underground stems
 Potato tubers store food
 Grass stems grow as rhizomes or stolons

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Modified Stems

1. Bulbs - consists of fleshy leaves attached to a small

knoblike stem; e.g. onions, lilies, tulips
2. Corms - resembles bulbs but reveals no fleshy leaves;
have a stem with a few papery, brown nonfunctional
leaves, and adventitious roots below; e.g. gladioluses
3. Rhizomes - horizontal stems that grow underground, often
close to the surface; e.g. perennial grasses, ferns
4. Runners and stolons - horizontal stems that grow along the
surface of the ground; e.g. strawberry plants
5. Tubers - swollen tip of stolon due to accumulation of
carbohydrates; e.g. potato
6. Tendrils - twine around supports and aid in climbing;
e.g.peas, pumpkins
7. Cladophylls - flattened photosynthetic stems that
resemble leaves; e.g. cacti

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Root system adaptations
 Eudicots have taproots
 Monocots have fibrous roots
 Other types of roots
 Prop roots
 Buttress roots
 Pneumatophores
 Fleshy storage roots – carrots, sugar beets

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Modified Roots

Taproot system - consists of a single large root with

smaller branch roots
Fibrous root system - composed of many smaller roots

1. Aerial roots - exhibited by plants that have roots extended

out into the air (orchids); have epidermis that is
several cells thick to reduce water loss; some maybe
photosynthetic (vanilla orchid); prop roots grow down
to the ground and brace the plants against wind (corn);
some plants (ivy) produce roots from their stems to
anchor the stems to tree trunks or brick wall

2. Pneumatophores - some plants growing in swamps produce

spongy outgrowths called pneumatophores from their
roots; these facilitate the oxygen supply to the roots
beneath

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3. Contractile roots - roots of some plants contract by spiraling
to pull the plant a little deeper into the soil each year
until they reach an area of relatively stable temperatures
e.g. lilies, dandelions
4. Parasitic roots - certain plants (Cuscuta) that lack chlorophyll
have stems that produce peglike roots called haustoria
that penetrate the host plants around which they are
twined; the haustoria establish contact with the conducting
tissues and parasitize their their host
5. Food storage roots - some plants have roots that accumulate
large quantities of carbohydrates; potatoes, carrots,
beets, radishes, turnips
6. Water storage roots - some plants (Cucurbitaceae) produce
water-storage roots
7. Buttress roots - certain species of fig and other tropical
trees produce huge buttress roots toward the base of
the trunk, which provide considerable stability

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Root growth
 15 distinct regions of cellular
specialization
 3 major zones
1. Apical meristem producing root and root cap
2. Zone of elongation
3. Zone of maturation with specialized cells

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 Root meristem and root cap
 RAM contains stem cells, protoderm (epidermal
tissues), ground meristem (ground tissue), and
procambium (makes vascular tissue)
 Also produces protective root cap
 Root tips embedded in lubricating mucigel

 Zone of elongation
 Cells extend by water uptake
 Zone of maturation
 Root cell differentiation and tissue specialization
 Identified by presence of root hairs (water and mineral
uptake) absent from older regions
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 Epidermis of mature roots encloses region of
ground parenchyma – root cortex
 Root cortex cells often rich in starch (food
storage site)
 Primary vascular system includes xylem
enclosed by phloem
 Pericycle encloses root vascular tissue
 Produces lateral (branch) roots
 Woody roots produce primary vascular tissues
followed by secondary vascular tissues

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