Powerplant Theory and Design

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
prepared by : Engr. Eric John Velasco
Outlines of Discussion :
I Engine Introduction, Definition, and Principles

II Engine Characteristics Engine Classifications, Construction, and

Engine Nomenclature

III Engine Construction, and Operation

IV: Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic Applications

 PartI
Engine Introduction ,Definition, and Principles
The piston engine is an internal combustion engine
working on the principle deviced by Dr. Otto in 1876. The
piston engine converts chemical energy in the form of
petroleum fuel into mechanical energy via heat and can
be termed a heat engine. The working medium is air,
which is capable of changes in volume and pressure
when subjected to an increase in temperature caused by
the burning fuel.
 The working cycle consist of four strokes of the piston:
Induction, Compression, Power, and, Exhaust. This is
known as the four-stroke or Otto cycle. The cycle is of an
intermittent nature; each stroke is a distinct and separate
from the others. During each cycle, the piston moves in a
reciprocating motion within a tube termed a cylinder
barrel. The crankshaft converts this linear motion into a
rotary motion. In one four stroke cycle, the crankshaft
makes two complete revolutions – 720 degrees.
What is a Reciprocating Engine?
 A reciprocating engine is a type of heat engine that derives
its name from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating
movement of its pistons. It is this reciprocating motion that
produces the mechanical energy needed to accomplish
work.
PartII

Engine Characteristics, Classifications, and

Nomenclature
Engine Requirements:
 Lightweight – powerplant weight must be kept as low as possible
to provide greater weight for useful load and provide a margin of
safety.
 Reliability – a powerplant is reliable when it can be depended
upon to do what it is intended for it to do by the manufacturer.
 Durability – this is the measure the engine life, while maintaining
the desired reliability.
 Compactness – it is necessary to affect proper streamlining and
balance of the airplane, and in single engine airplane, the shape
and size of the engine affects the visibility of the pilot.
 Flexibility – the ability to operate efficiently regardless of the
conditions.
 Weight per horsepower – the ratio of the weight of the engine to
the horsepower it can produce. This is the factor that engine
manufacturers consider the most. The engine must produce a large
amount of power but must also be light in construction.
 Specific power output – the amount of power
produced in a given amount of fuel.
 Fuel economy – it is a factor of the fuel
characteristics, fuel must be more resistant to
detonation, to allow an increase in engine
compression ratio.
 Balance – if the powerplant is free from vibration, it is
said to be balance.
 Reasonable cost – the first cost must be low enough
to meet the competition in the market and be accepted
by the airframe manufacturer.
 Economy of operation – it must have a reasonable
cost of operation, it must be such that it will make
profit for the operator.
Types of Reciprocating Engine:
- Reciprocating engine is usually classified according to its cylinder arrangement namely:

 Radial engine
- Single row
- Double row
- Multiple row or corncob
 In-Line engine
- In line upright
- In line inverted
 V-Type engine
- V type upright
- V type inverted
- Double V or Fan type
 Opposed or Flat type engine
 X type engine
Radial Engines
 A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase.
 single-row radial engine has an odd number of
cylinders attached radially to a crankcase. A typical
configuration consists of five to nine cylinders evenly
spaced on the same circular plane with all pistons
connected to a single crankshaft.
 multiple-row radial engines consisted of two single
row engines in line with each other connected to a
single crankshaft. This type of engine is sometimes
referred to as a double-row radial engine and typically
has a total of 14 or 18 cylinders.
 Greatest drag of all types
 Most widely used engines ever built
Figure 1-2. Radial engines helped revolutionize aviation with their
high power and dependability.
In-Line Engines
An in-line engine generally has an even
number of cylinders that are aligned in a
single row parallel with the crankshaft. This
engine can be either liq-uid-cooled or air
cooled and the pistons can be located either
upright above the crankshaft or inverted
below the crankshaft.
Figure 1-4. A popular version of the in-line engine consisted of cylinders that were
inverted. A typical in-line engine con-sists of four to six cylinders and develops anywhere
from 90 to 200 horsepower.
In-line Engines Advantages
 An in-line engine has a comparatively small
frontal area and, therefore, allows for better
streamlining. Least drag.
 Another advantage of the in-line engine is
that, when mounted with the cylinders
inverted, the crankshaft is higher off the
ground. The higher crankshaft allowed
greater propeller ground clearance which, in
turn, permitted the use of shorter landing
gear.
In-Line Engines Disadvantages:
 have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.
 the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled in-
line engine receive relatively little cooling air,
so in-line engines were typically limited to
only four or six cylinders.
 With these limitations, most in-line engine
designs were confined to low- and medium-
horsepower engines used in light aircraft.
V-type Engines
 the cylinders of a V-type engine are arranged
around a single crankshaft in two in-line banks
that are 45, 60, or 90 degrees apart.
 Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders,
they were typically capable of producing more
horsepower than an in-line engine.
 The cylinders on a V-type engine could be
above the crankshaft or below it, in which case
the engine is referred to as an inverted V-type
engine.
 Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and
were either liquid-cooled or air cooled.
Figure 1-5. V-type engines provide an excellent combina-tion of
weight, power, and small frontal area.
Opposed Engines
 opposed-type engines are the most popular
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
 A typical opposed engine can produce as little
as 36 horsepower to as much as 400
horsepower.
 always have an even number of cylinders, and
a cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes"
a cylinder on the other side.
 While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled,
the majority are air cooled.
Figure 1-6. A horizontally opposed engine combines a good power-
to-weight ratio with a relatively small frontal area. These engines
power most light aircraft in use today.
Opposed Engines Continued...
 Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight
ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase.
 an opposed engine's compact cylinder
arrangement reduces the engine's frontal area and
allows a streamlined installation that minimizes
aerodynamic drag.
 opposed engines typically vibrate less than other
engines because an opposed engine's power
impulses tend to cancel each other.
 Most efficient, dependable, and economical type
available for light aircraft.
Engine Components
Crankcase
 a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil as well as
a means of attaching a complete engine The
crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating
engine. It contains the engine's internal parts
and provides a mounting surface for the engine
cylinders and external accessories.
 The crankcase provides o an airframe.
 most aircraft crankcases are made of cast
aluminum alloys.
Figure 1-8. In addition to the transverse webs that support the main bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are
typically cast into a crankcase. These bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve operating
mechanism.
Radial Engine Crankcase
 radial engine crankcases are divided into
distinct sections.
 The number of sections can be as few as
three or as many as seven depending on
the size and type of engine.
 In general, a typical radial engine
crankcase separates into four main
sections: the nose section, the power
section, the supercharger section, and
the accessory section.
Figure 1-9. The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the nose section, power section, supercharger
section, and accessory section.
The Four Basic Power Delivering Parts:
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Crankshaft
Cylinders
 The cylinder provides a combustion chamber
where the burning and expansion of gases
takes place to produce power.
 Considered as the powerhouse of the engine,
where the chemical energy of the fuel is
converted to mechanical energy.
 A cylinder houses the piston and connecting
rod assembly as well as the valves and spark
plugs.
 a cylinder must be strong enough to withstand
the internal pressures developed during
engine operation yet be lightweight to
minimize engine weight.
Cylinders Continued...
 Transmits power through pistons,
connecting rods and rotate the
crankshaft.
 Dissipates substantial amount of heat
produced by the combustion of fuel.
 The two parts are cylinder head and the
cylinder barrel.
Figure 1-30. The cylinder assembly along with the piston assembly, connecting rods, crankshaft, and crankcase
constitute the power section of a reciprocating engine.
Cylinder Barrel
 The most commonly used material is a
high-strength steel alloy such as
chromium-molybdenum steel (SAE 4130 or
4140), or nickel chromium molybdenum
steel.
 The lower cylinders on radial engines and
all the cylinders on inverted engines
typically employ cylinders with extended
cylinder skirts.
 The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of
several thin cooling fins that are machined
into the exterior cylinder wall
Cylinder Heads
 The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel to
provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.

 cylinder heads contain intake and exhaust valve ports,

spark plugs, valve actuating mechanisms, and also serve
to conduct heat away from the cylinder barrels.

 The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semi-

spherical, or peaked, to resemble the shape of a house
roof.

 the semi-spherical type has proved to be the most

satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for more
rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust gases.
Pistons
 The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical
plunger that moves up and down, back and forth
within a cylinder.

 Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they

draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress the
gases, and purge burned exhaust gases from the
cylinder; second, they transmit the force produced
by combustion to the crankshaft.

 Usually made of aluminum alloy AMS 4140 for

forged pistons Alcoa 132 alloy for cast pistons.
 Piston speed is maximum during the
first and fourth quarters of crankshaft
rotation.

 Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F

and pressures may be as high as 500
psi or up.
Parts of a Piston
 Piston Head - The piston's top surface is called the piston head and is
directly exposed to the heat of combustion.
 Ring Grooves - cut into a piston's outside surface to hold a set of piston
rings. As many as six ring grooves may be machined around a piston.
 Ring Land - The portion of the piston between the ring grooves.
 Piston pin boss - is an enlarged area inside the piston that provides
additional bearing area for a piston pin which passes through the piston pin
boss to attach the piston to a connecting rod.
 Piston skirt - To help align a piston in a cylinder, the piston base is
extended to form the piston skirt.
Piston Head Designs

Figure 1-24. Most modern aircraft engines use flat-head pistons. However, as an aviation technician, you
should be familiar with all piston head designs.
Cam-Ground Piston
 All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to the added mass at the piston boss, most
pistons expand more along the piston boss than perpendicular to the piston boss.

 This uneven expansion can cause a piston to take on an oblong, or oval shape, at normal
engine operating temperatures, resulting in uneven piston and cylinder wear.

 One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground piston. A cam ground piston is
machined with a slightly oval shape. That is, the diameter of the piston parallel to the piston
boss is slightly less than the diameter per-pendicular to the piston boss.
Figure 1-25. Several engines now use cam ground pistons to compensate for the greater expansion parallel
to the piston boss during engine operation. The diameter of a cam ground piston measures several
thousandths of an inch larger perpendicular to the piston boss than parallel to the piston boss.
Piston Rings
Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft reciprocating
engines:
 They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the combustion
chamber,
 reduce oil seepage into the combustion chamber,
 transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.
Piston Ring Joints:
 Butt
 Step
 Angle

Figure 1-26. Of the three types of joints used in piston ring gaps, the butt joint
is the most common in aircraft engines.
Types of Piston Rings:
 Compression rings
 Oil rings
Compression Rings
 Compression rings prevent gas from escaping past the piston during
engine operation and are placed in the ring grooves immediately
below the piston head.

 most aircraft engines typically use two or three compression rings on

each piston.

 The cross section of a compression ring can be rec-tangular, wedge

shaped, or tapered.
Figure 1-27. Compression rings are installed in the
Figure 1-28. Of the three different ring cross sections, the
upper ring grooves and help prevent the combustion
tapered face presents the narrowest bearing edge to the
gases from escaping by a piston. Oil rings, on the other
cylinder wall to help reduce friction and hasten ring
hand, are installed near the middle and bottom of a
seating.
piston and con-trol the amount of oil applied to the
cylinder wall.
Oil Rings
 Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied to the cylinder
walls as well as prevent oil from entering the combustion
chamber.
 The two types of oil rings that are found on most engines are oil
control rings and oil scraper rings.
Oil Control Rings
 Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below the
compression rings.

 The primary purpose of oil control rings is to regulate the thickness

of the oil film on the cylinder wall.

 To allow an oil control ring to remove excess oil and return it to the
crankcase, small holes are drilled in the piston ring grooves, or ring
lands.
Oil Scraper Rings
 used to regulate the amount of oil that passes between the piston
skirt and the cylinder wall.
 sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a beveled face
and is installed in a ring groove at the bottom of the piston skirt.
Figure 1-29. An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled edge away from the cylinder head forces oil upward along the
cylinder wall when the piston moves upward. However, if the beveled edge is facing the cylinder head, the ring scrapes
oil downward to the crankcase when the piston moves down.
Piston Pin
 A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod.
 Piston pins are sometimes called wrist pins
Piston Pin Classifications:
 Stationary - are held tightly in place by a setscrew that prevents
movement.
 Semi-floating - retained stationary in the connecting rod by a
set clamp that engages a slot in the pin. Allows little movement.
 Full-floating - free to rotate in both the connecting rod and the
piston, and are used in most modern aircraft engines.
Connecting Rods
 The connecting rod is the link which
transmits the force exerted on a piston to a
crankshaft.
 Most connecting rods are made of a
durable steel alloy; however, aluminum can
be used with low horsepower engines.
 One end of a connecting rod connects to
the crankshaft and is called the crankpin
end
 the other end connects to the piston and is
called the piston end.
Types of Connecting Rods:
 Plain Type
 Master and Articulated
 Fork and Blade
Plain type
 Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and in-line engines.
Master and Articulated
 The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly used in radial engines.

 With this type of assembly, one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the
crankshaft by a master rod.

 The remaining pistons are connected to the master rod by articulated rods.

 Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one master rod and eight articulating
rods, while a double row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods and 16 articulating
rods.
Figure 1-20. Articulated rods are attached to the master rod by knuckle pins, that are pressed into
holes in the master rod flanges during assembly. A knuckle pin lock plate is then installed to
retain the pins.
Fork and Blade
 The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in V-type
engines and consists of a fork connecting rod and a blade
connecting rod.
Figure 1-22. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type engine consists of a blade connecting rod whose
crankpin end fits between the prongs of the fork connecting rod.
Valves
 Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and
out of a cylinder by opening and closing at
predetermined times in the combustion process.

 Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and

one exhaust valve.

 The intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air

mixture that enters a cylinder through the intake port,

 while the exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to

exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
 intake valves operate at lower temperatures
than exhaust valves
Figure 1-37. Aircraft engine valves are classified according to their head profile.
 To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust
valve stems are hollowed out and then
partially filled with metallic sodium. When
installed in an operating engine, the sodium
melts when the valve stem reaches
approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit. The
melted sodium circulates naturally due to the
up and down motion of the valve and helps
carry heat from the valve head into the stem
where it is dissipated through the cylinder
head.
Figure 1-39. Some valves are filled with metallic sodium to reduce their operating temperatures. During
operation, the sodium melts and transfers heat to the valve stem where the heat is conducted away by the
cylinder head.
Valve Seating Components

Valve spring retainers

 Valve Face - portion of the valve that creates a seal at the intake and exhaust ports.
 Valve Seat - a circular ring of hardened metal that provides a uniform sealing surface for the
valve face.
 Valve Guide - is a cylindrical sleeve that provides support to the valve stem and keeps the
valve face aligned with the valve seat.
 Valve Springs - are helical-coiled springs that are installed in the cylinder head and provide
the force that holds the valve face firmly against the valve seat.
 Valve Spring Retainer – holds the valve springs in place
Valve Operating Mechanisms:
 open each valve at the correct time, hold it open for a certain
period, and then close the valve.
 Consists of Camshaft, valve lifter or tappet, push rod, and rocker
arm
Figure 1-41. The components in a typical valve operating mechanism, include a camshaft or cam ring, a
tappet or lifter, a push rod, and a rocker arm.
 Camshaft – a device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism. Typically used in opposed engines,
camshaft consists of a round shaft with a series of cams, or lobes, that transform the circular motion of
the crankshaft to the linear motion needed to actuate a valve.

 Cam ring - in place of a camshaft, a radial engine uses one or two cam rings, depending on the
number of cylinder rows. A circular piece of steel with a series of raised cam lobes on its outer edge.

 Valve lifter or tappet – a mechanism to transmit the force of the cam to the push rod

 Push Rod – a steel or aluminum alloy rod or tube situated between the valve lifter and the rocker arm
to transmit the motion of the valve lifter.

 Rocker Arm – a pivoted arm mounted on the bearings of the cylinder head to open and close the
valves.
Figure 1-42. The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion of the camshaft to linear motion.
Figure 1-43. In a typical opposed engine, the camshaft timing gear has twice as many teeth as the
gear on the crank-shaft. In this configuration, the camshaft is driven at one-half the crankshaft's
rotational speed.
Figure 1-49. A radial engine valve
operating mechanism performs the same
functions as the mechanism used in an
opposed engine.
Crankshafts
 The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine.

 Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating

motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary
motion to turn a propeller.

 A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or

throws, located at specified points along its length.

 Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they

are generally forged from a strong alloy such as
chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
Parts of a Crankshaft
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal
 Crankpin
 Crank cheek or crank arm
 Counterweights and dampers
Figure 1-10. All crankshafts consist of a main bearing journal, one or more crankpins, and several
crank cheeks.
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal - represent the centreline of a crankshaft
and support the crankshaft as it rotates in the main bearings. Center of rotation of
the crankshaft.
 Crankpin - or connecting-rod bearing journals or throws, serve as attachment
points for the connecting rods. To reduce total crankshaft weight, crankpins are
usually hollow. This hollow construction also provides a passage for lubricating oil.
In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as a collection chamber for sludge, dirt,
carbon deposits, and other foreign material. This is called sludge chamber
 Crankcheek or crankarm - required to connect the crankpin to the
crankshaft.
 Counterweights and dampers - helps balance the crankshaft. Its
function is to relieve the whip and vibration caused by rotation of the
crankshaft.
Crankshaft Balance
 Statically Balance
 Dynamically Balance
Statically Balanced
 when the weight of an entire crankshaft assembly is balanced
around its axis of rotation.
 Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must be dynamically
balanced.
Dynamic Balance
 refers to balancing the centrifugal forces created by a rotating crankshaft and the
impact forces created by an engine's power impulses.

 The most common means of dynamically balancing a crankshaft is through the use
of dynamic dampers.

 A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened to a crankshaft's crank cheek

assembly in such a way that it is free to move back and forth in a small arc.
Each time a cylinder fires, a pulse is transmitted
into the crankshaft that causes it to flex. When the
engine is running, the crankshaft receives
hundreds of these pulses each minute and flexes,
or vibrates, constantly. To help minimize these
vibrations, the dynamic damper oscillates, or
swings, each time the crankshaft receives a pulse
from a firing cylinder. These oscillations are
opposite the crankshaft vibra-tions and, therefore,
absorb some of the force pro-duced by the power
impulse.
Figure 1-13. Think of the crankshaft as a pendulum that
swings at its natural frequency once a force is applied.
The greater the force, the greater the distance the
pendulum swings. However, if a second pendulum is
suspended from the first and a force is applied, the
second pendulum begins to oscillate opposite the applied
force. This opposite oscillation dampens the oscillation of
the first pendulum leaving it nearly stationary. You can
think of a dynamic damper as a short pendulum hung
from a crankshaft that is tuned to the frequency of the
power impulses.
Crankshaft Types
 The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine depends on
the number and arrangement of an engine's cylinders.
 Single Throw
 Two Throw
 Four Throw
 Six Throw
Single Throw or 360 degree
 used on single-row radial engines.

 As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft consists of a single

crankpin with two main journals that support the crankshaft in the
crankcase.

 A single-throw crankshaft may be constructed out of either one or

two pieces.
Figure 1-14. With a one-piece, single-throw
crankshaft, the entire crankshaft is cast as one
solid piece. However, with a clamp type two-
piece crankshaft, the two pieces are held together
by a bolt that passes through the crankpin.
Two Throw
 Used on Twin-row radial engines, one throw for each bank of cylinders.

 The throws on a two-throw crankshaft are typically set 180 degrees from
each other and may consist of either one or three pieces.
Four Throw
 used on four cylinder opposed engines and four cylinder in-line
engines.

Figure 1-15. A typical four-throw crankshaft used in a horizontally

opposed engine is machined as one piece with throws that are 180 degrees
apart.
Four Throw Crankshaft
Six Throw
 Used on six cylinder opposed and in-line engines and 12 cylinder V-
type engines.

Figure 1-16. With a typical six-throw crankshaft, the throws are 60 degrees apart. On the
six throw crankshaft pictured above, the crank journals are numbered from the flanged
end. If you were to number each throw in 60• increments from the flanged end, the order
would be 1,4,5, 2,3,6.
Six throw crankshaft
Bearings
 A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces friction between two moving
parts.

 A part in which a journal, pivot, shaft turns or revolves.

 Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine include the main
journals, crankpins, connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.

 There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move in relation to each other. One is
by the sliding movement of one metal against another, and the second is for one
surface to roll over another.
Types of Bearings
 Plain Bearing
 Ball Bearing
 Roller Bearing
Figure 1-17. Of the three most common types of bearings used in reciprocating engines, the plain bearing relies on the
sliding movement of one metal against another, while both roller and ball bearings have one surface roll over another.
Plain Bearings
 Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft main bearings,
cam ring and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end bearings,
and accessory drive shaft bearings.

 These bearings are typically subject to radial loads only

Ball Bearings
 A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and outer races, one or
more sets of polished steel balls, and a bearing retainer.
 The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept evenly spaced by the
bearing retainer, while the inner and outer bearing races provide a
smooth surface for the balls to roll over.
 ball bearings have the least amount of rolling friction.
 ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust loads
Roller Bearings
 Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball bearings except
that polished steel rollers are used instead of balls
 The rollers provide a greater contact area and a corresponding
increase in rolling friction over that of a ball bearing.
 Has two types namely: straight roller bearings which suitable when
the bearing is subjected to radial loads only such as crankshafts main
bearings, and tapered roller bearings that allow the bearing to
withstand both radial and thrust loads.
Straight Roller Bearings
Tapered Roller Bearings
 Part III

Engine Construction, and Operation

Cycle – series of events returning to its original state.
Engine Cycle – series of events that an internal combustion engine
undergoes while it is operating and delivering power. There are two
revolutions of the crankshaft for each cycle of the engine.
Thermodynamic Cycles of Heat engine:
 Carnot cycle
 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Brayton Cycle
Engine Geometry:
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the piston inside the
cylinder when it reaches the top most of its travel.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of the piston inside
the cylinder when it reaches the bottom most of its travel.
 Stroke (S) – the distance that the piston travels from the top
dead center to the bottom dead center
Engine Geometry continued...
 Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder
 Piston displacement or volume displacement (VD) – the volume
being travelled by the piston as it moves from the TDC to the BDC.
The product of the area of the piston, length of the stroke, and the
number of cylinders.
 Clearance volume (Vc) – the volume within the cylinder when the
piston is at the TDC.
 Total volume (VT) – the over all or total volume within the cylinder.
Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a piston head travels between bottom dead
center and top dead center. In all reciprocating engines, one complete stroke occurs with each
180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
The Four Stroke Five Event engine Cycle:
Strokes: Events:
Intake Intake
Compression Compression
Power Ignition
Exhaust Power or Expansion
Exhaust or Scavenging
The Four Stroke Engine
Intake. During the intake stroke, the piston
moves downward, drawing a fresh charge
of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The
illustrated engine features a 'poppet' intake
valve which is drawn open by the vacuum
produced by the intake stroke. Some early
engines worked this way, however most
modern engines incorporate an extra
cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the
exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held
shut by a spring (not illustrated here).
Compression. As the piston rises the
poppet valve is forced shut by the
increased cylinder pressure. Flywheel
momentum drives the piston upward,
compressing the fuel/air mixture.
Power. At the top of the compression
stroke the spark plug fires, igniting the
compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it
expands, driving the piston downward.
Exhaust. At the bottom of the power
stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the
cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke
of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out
of the cylinder.
Engine Cooling:
 Air Cooling – thin metal fins project from the outer surface of the walls and
heads of the engine cylinders (cooling fins). Deflector baffles are also used
which are fastened around the cylinders to direct the flow of air to obtain
maximum cooling.
 Liquid Cooling – consists of liquid passages around the cylinders and other
hot spots of the engine. The cooling liquid used is ethylene glycol or mixture
of ethylene glycol and water.
Engine Cooling
Effects of Excessive Heat:
 Adversely affects the combustion of fuel and air charge.
 Weakens and shortens life of engine parts
 Impairs lubrication
Components of liquid cooling system:
 Radiator – is the component by which the liquid is cooled
 Thermostatic element – govern the amount of cooling applied
to the liquid
 Coolant pump – circulates the cooling fluid
 Pipes and Hoses
Engine Controls
 Throttle – controls the engine power

 Propeller Control – for constant speed and controllable pitch propeller

 Mixture Control – used to adjust fuel air mixture with settings, full rich, lean, idle
cut off

 Carburator air heater – operate the gate valve in the air induction system to
provide either cold air or hot air for carburator. Heated air is required when in
danger of icing.

 Miscellaneous Engine Controls – includes cowl flaps, oil coolers, superchargers

etc.
 Throttle Propeller Control

Mixture Control
The Two Stroke Cycle
Two Stroke Cycle
 The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-stroke cycle in that the
same five events occur in each operating cycle.
 However, the five events occur in two piston strokes rather than
four strokes. This means that one cycle is completed in one
crankshaft revolution.
Two Stroke, Three events cycle:
Stroke:
Compression
Power, Intake, exhaust stroke

Events:
Compression
Ignition and Power
Exhaust and Intake
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into and out of the cylinder through the intake and
exhaust ports. This eliminates the need for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating mechanisms. This
sim-plifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes weight.
Two Stroke Cycle Operation:
 As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves up and two events occur
simultaneously.

 The piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and creates an
area of low pressure within the crankcase. This low pressure pulls fuel and
air into the crankcase through a check valve.

 Once the piston is a few degrees before top dead center, ignition occurs
and the fuel/air mixture begins to burn.
 As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from the expanding gases begin to force the
piston downward on the power stroke.

 This downward stroke also compresses the fuel/air charge in the crankcase. As the piston
approaches the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered and spent gases are
purged from the cylinder.

 A split second later, the piston uncovers the intake port and allows the pressurized fuel/air
charge in the crankcase to enter the cylinder.

 The cycle then repeats itself as the piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and
draws a fresh fuel/air charge into the crankcase.
The Diesel Engine
The Diesel Engine
 A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine which operates using the
diesel cycle named after Dr. Rudolph Diesel

 Diesel engines have the highest rate of energy to fuel (kwh/lbs) compared
to any internal or external combustion engine

 The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of compression ignition
to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during the
final stage of compression
The four stroke of diesel engine
1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in
by the piston sliding downward.
2. Compression stroke: The piston
compresses the air above and uses
thereby work, performed by the
crankshaft.
3. Power stroke: In the upper dead- Fuel nozzle
center, the air is max. compressed:
Pressure and Temperature are very
high. Now the black injection pump
injects heavy fuel in the hot air. By the
high temperature the fuel gets ignited
immediately (auto ignition). The piston
gets pressed downward and performs
work to the crankshaft.
4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust
gases are ejected out of the cylinder
through a second valve by the piston
sliding upward again.
Diesel vs. Gasoline
Diesel vs. Gasoline
 Gasoline does not self-ignite when  Diesel on the other hand, does not require a
spark plug to ignite it because it generates
compressed, because it does not enough heat when it is completely
compressed to ignite itself and cause
generate enough heat explosion
 It needs activation energy to  Diesel engines have a much higher
compression pressure than gasoline engines
explode, and this energy is  The reason for this higher pressure is that in
generated by a spark plug at the a diesel engine, only air is compressed
 The fuel is then directly injected into the
top of the cylinder cylinder,
 Part IV:
Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic Applications
Engine Thermodynamic Cycles:
 Otto Cycle – the cycle of spark ignition engines
 Diesel Cycle – model for the Diesel or compression ignition
engines.
Otto Cycle
1-2: Isentropic Compression
2-3: Constant Volume addition of heat
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume rejection of heat
Compression Ignition Diesel Engine

1-2: Isentropic Compression

2-3: Constant Pressure Addition of Heat
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant – Volume rejection of heat
Piston Displacement
 Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves
from bottom center to top center.

 To determine a piston's displacement, you must multiply the area of a piston head
by the length of the piston stroke. Expressed in cubic inches of volume.

 The total piston displacement of an engine is the total volume displaced by all the
pistons during one revolution of the crankshaft. It equals the number of cylinders in
the engine multiplied by the piston displacement of one piston
 the greater the total piston displacement, the greater the
maximum horsepower that an engine can develop

 piston displacement is also called volume displacement

Piston Displacement:
Area of the Piston = pi d2
4
where: pi = 3.1416...
d = diameter of the piston head/bore

Piston Displacement = Area of piston x L

where: L = lenght of stroke
Total Piston Displacement:
Area of the piston x L x n

where: n = number of cylinders

Example
 What is the total piston displacement of a four cylinder aircraft
engine which has a bore of 4 inches and a length of stroke of 6
inches?
If the cylinder Bore is too large...
 fuel will be wasted and the intensity of the heat and the restricted
flow of the heat may be so great that the cylinder may not be
cooled properly
If the Stroke is too large...
 Excessive dynamic stresses and too much angularity of the
connecting rods will be the consequences.
Square Engine
 The Bore and Stroke are equal
 provides the best and efficient engine performance
Crank Radius
R = stroke/2

Length of Connecting Rod

L = 4R

4 stroke cycle engine:

1 cycle/min (cpm) = 2 rpm
Engine Power:
 Indicated horsepower (IHP)
 Brake horsepower (BHP)
 Friction horsepower (FHP)
Indicated Horsepower:
 Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total power actually developed in
an engine's cylinders without reference to friction losses within the
engine.

 To calculate indicated horsepower, the average effective pressure

within the cylinders must be known.

 This average pressure is referred to as indicated mean effective

pressure
Where:
P = the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, or IMEP inside the cylinder during a power stroke.
L = the length of the stroke in feet or fractions of a foot.
A = the area of the piston head in square inches.
N = the number of power strokes per minute for one cylinder. On a four-stroke engine, this is found by dividing the rpm by two.
K = the number of cylinders on the engine.
Example
 Compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder engine that
has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five inches, and is turning at
2,750 rpm with a measured IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder.
Friction Horsepower
 The power required to overcome the friction and energy losses is
known as friction horsepower and is measured by driving an
engine with a calibrated motor and measuring power needed to
turn the engine at a given speed.
Brake Horsepower
 The actual amount of power delivered to the propeller shaft is
called brake horsepower.

 One way to determine brake horsepower is to subtract an

engine's friction horsepower from its indicated horsepower.

 85 – 90% of the IHP

IHP = BHP + FHP
Mean Effective Pressure
 an average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal
combustion engine based on some calculated or measured
horsepower.

 It increases as manifold pressure increases.

 indicated mean effective pressure (imep),brake mean effective

pressure (bmep)
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
 derived from indicated horsepower
 IMEP = BMEP To
mech eff.

where: BMEP To = BMEP at take off

mech eff = mechanical efficiency
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
BMEP = bhp x 33000
LAN
Where: L = stroke, ft
A = area of bore, sq. in.
N = number of working strokes per
minute
- in a four stroke cycle engine, N = ½ rpm of the engine multiplied
by the number of cylinders.
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
BMEP = 792000 x bhp
disp. rpm

where: disp. = engine displacement

BMEP = K x bhp
rpm
where: K = 792000/disp. or the K factor of the
engine
Brake Mean Effective Pressure at Take
Off
BMEP To = BHP To RPM Cr BMEP Cr
BHP Cr RPM To

where: BHP To = bhp at take off

BHP Cr = bhp at cruising
RPM To = rpm at take off
RPM Cr = rpm at cruising
BMEP Cr = bmep at cruising
Problem
If an R 1830 engine is turning at 2750 rpm and developing 1100 hp,
what is the bmep?
Efficiency:
 The ratio of the input energy to the output energy, or the energy
supplied to produce work and the actual energy being converted
into work.
Engine Efficiency:
 Thermal Efficiency
 Volumetric Efficiency
 Mechanical Efficiency
Thermal Efficiency:
 An engine's thermal efficiency (TE) is a ratio of the amount of heat energy converted to
useful work to the amount of heat energy contained in the fuel used to support combustion.

 In other words, thermal efficiency is a measure of the inefficiencies experienced when

converting the heat energy in fuel to work.

 For example, consider two engines that produce the same amount of horsepower, but
consume different amounts of fuel. The engine using less fuel converts a greater portion of
the available energy into useful work and, therefore, has a higher thermal efficiency.
Thermal Efficiency Chart

Friction
Losses
5%

Cooling
Exhaust
System
Gases
25%
40%

Useful
Work
30%
 Thermal efficiency can be calculated using either brake or
indicated horsepower. If brake horsepower is used, the result is
brake thermal efficiency (BTE), and if indicated horsepower
is used, you get indicated thermal efficiency (ITE).
Indicated Thermal Efficiency
ihp x 33000
wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x 778

Note: Heat value in (BTU) = 1 pound of avgas contains 20,000 BTUs

of heat energy
Brake Thermal Efficiency
bhp x 33000
wt. of fuel burned/min x heat value (BTU) x 778
Example
 Determine the brake thermal efficiency of a piston engine that
produces 150 brake horsepower while burning 8 gallons of
aviation gasoline per hour.
Volumetric Efficiency:
 Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of the volume of fuel and
air an engine takes into its cylinders to the total piston
displacement.

 For example, if an engine draws in a volume of fuel and air that

is exactly equal to the engine's total piston displacement,
volumetric efficiency would be 100 percent.
 The volumetric efficiency of most normally aspirated engines is less than
100 percent.

 The reason for this is because bends, surface roughness, and obstructions
inside the induction system slow the flow of air which, in turn, reduces the
air pressure within the manifold.

 On the other hand, turbocharged engines compress the air before it enters
the cylinders, and often have volumetric efficiencies greater than 100
percent.
Volumetric Efficiency:
Vol eff = volume of charge at atmospheric
pressure
piston displacement
 Anything that decreases the density, or volume of air entering a
cylinder decreases volumetric efficiency.
Some of the typical factors that affect volumetric
efficiency of a non-turbocharged engine include:
 Part Throttle Operation
 Long, small diameter, intake pipes
 Induction systems with sharp bends
 High carburetor air temperatures
 High cylinder head temperatures
 Incomplete Scavenging
 Improper Valve timing
 Increases in altitude
 When the engine is running,
hot exhaust gases coming
through the exhaust valves
and into the exhaust manifold
are routed into the
turbocharger where they
rotate a turbine. This rotor is
connected to a compressor
wheel through a shaft. This
second wheel then drives
compressed air into its own
housing. With the engine in
high rpm, a centrifugal force
drives this air out of the
housing and into the engine
cylinder.
Mechanical Efficiency:
 Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake horsepower to indicated
horsepower and represents the percentage of power developed in the
cylinders that reaches the propeller shaft.

 For example, if an engine develops 160 brake horsepower and 180

indicated horsepower, the ratio of brake horsepower to indicated
horsepower is 160:180, which represents a mechanical efficiency of 89
percent.
Mechanical Efficiency

 output = BHP
input IHP
Factors Affecting Power
 Manifold Pressure
 Detonation and Pre-ignition
 Compression Ratio
 Ignition Timing
 Engine Speed
 Specific Fuel Consumption
 Altitude
 Fuel/Air ratio
Manifold Pressure
 the pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the intake manifold between the carburator or
internal supercharger and the intake valve.

 Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount of power an engine can produce for a
given rpm.

 Excessive pressures and temperatures shorten engine life by overstressing cylinders, pistons,
connecting rods, bearings, crankshaft journals, and valves.

 Continued operation past upper manifold absolute pressure limits leads to worn engine
parts, decreasing power output and lower efficiency, or worse, engine failure.
Detonation/Pre-ignition
 Detonation - is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the
fuel/air mixture in the cylinder. Detonation causes high cylinder
temperatures and pressures which lead to a rough running
engine, overheating, and power loss.
Figure 1-65. During normal combustion, the fuel/air Figure 1-66. When detonation occurs, the fuel/air charge
mixture burns evenly, producing a steady force similar burns in an explosive fashion causing a rapid increase in
to the even pressure of someone pushing down on the pressure that produces a "hammering" action on the
piston. piston.
Causes of Detonation:
 using a fuel grade lower than recommended
 allowing the engine to overheat.
 Wrong ignition timing
 fuel/air mixture too lean,
 compression ratios of 12:1 or higher
Pre-ignition
 takes place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon.

 It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the fuel/air mixture before the spark plugs
fire.

 A hot spot can be caused by something as simple as a carbon particle, overheated valve
edges, silica deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark plug electrode.

 Hot spots are caused by poor engine cooling, dirty intake air filters, or shutting down the
engine at high rpm.

 When the engine continues running after the ignition is turned off, preignition may be the
cause.
Compression Ratio
 An engine's compression ratio is defined as the ratio of cylinder volume with the
piston at the bottom of its stroke to the volume with the piston at the top of its
stroke.

 For example, if there are 140 cubic inches of space in a cylinder when the piston is at
bottom center and 20 cubic inches of space when the piston is at top center, the
compression ratio is 140 to 20

 As a general rule, the higher the compression ratio, the greater an engine's power
output.
Compression Ratio may be limited by:
 the characteristics of available fuels
 the degree of turbocharging
Ignition Timing
 When the ignition event is properly timed, complete
combustion and maximum pressure occur just after the piston
passes top dead center at the beginning of the power stroke.
Engine Speed - the faster an engine runs, the more power it produces.
Specific Fuel Consumption - the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour to
produce one horsepower.
Altitude
Fuel to Air ratio - A stoichiometric mixture is a perfectly balanced fuel/air
mixture of 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel, by weight. A fuel/air mixture that
is leaner than 15:1 has less fuel in the fuel/air mixture, while a rich mixture
has more fuel. Combustible fuel/air ratios range from 8:1 to 18:1.
 Best Power Mixture – develops maximum power at a particular
rpm and is typically used during takeoff. Fuel/air ratio of 0.075

 Best Economy Mixture - provides the best specific fuel

consumption which results in an aircraft's maximum range and
optimum fuel economy. Occurs when the fuel/air ratio is
approximately 0.062
Take – Off Power Rating
 determined by the maximum rpm and the manifold pressure at
which the airplane may be operated during the process of take
off.

 time limitations of take off power is 1 to 5 minutes

Rated Power
 also called standard engine rating, the maximum horsepower
output which can be obtained from an engine when it is operated
at a specified RPM and manifold pressure conditions, established
as safe for continuous engine operations.

 also called METO power or the Maximum Except Take off

Power
Maximum Power
 the greatest power output that the engine can develop at any
time under any conditions.

 as manifold pressure increases, power output of an engine

increases.

 as rpm increases, power output of an engine increases.

Ineffective Crank Angle
Valve Timing
Firing Order
 An engine's firing order represents the sequence in which the
ignition event occurs in different cylinders.
 Each engine is designed with a specific firing order to maintain
balance and reduce vibration.
Problem:
 A four stroke cycle, 4 cylinder reciprocating engine with a speed of 1800 rpm
has a stroke of 8.0 inches and a cylinder bore diameter of 6 inches. The mean
effective pressure inside the cylinder is 200 psi and the mechanical efficiency
of the engine is 80 %. Determine:
a. Piston displacement
b. No. of cycles per minute
c. IHP
d. BHP
e. FHP
Problems:
1. Compute the horsepower output of the following describe engine operating at
2000 rpm, bore 3.5 in., stroke 4.0 in., 6 cylinders, 140 psi bmep.
2. Compute the piston displacement of a radial engine having 9 cylinders, a bore of
5 in. and stroke of 5 in.
3. Compute the compression ratio of an engine which has a bore of 5 in. and a
stroke of 5 in. when the volume at the combustion chamber is 16.36 cu.in. with
the piston at TDC
4. Compute the bmep of an engine when the output is 450 hp, 2300 rpm, bore and
stroke are each 5.5 in, and with 9 cylinders.