Objectives and Methods of

Analysis and Design

 Introduction
• Reinforced concrete, as a composite material - Due to its flexibility in form
and superiority in performance, it has replaced, to a large extent, the earlier
materials like stone, timber and steel.

• Further, architect's scope and imaginations have widened to a great extent

due to its mouldability and monolithicity.

• helped the architects and engineers to build several attractive shell forms
and other curved structures.
• straight line structural forms like multistoried frames, bridges,
foundations etc. is enormous.
• The design of these modern reinforced concrete structures may appear to be
highly complex.
• However, most of these structures are the assembly of several basic
structural elements such as beams, columns, slabs, walls and foundations
(Anim. 1.1.1).
• Accordingly, the designer has to learn the design of these basic
reinforced concrete elements.
• The joints and connections are then carefully developed
• Every structure has got its form, function and aesthetics.
• Normally, we consider that the architects will take care of them and
the structural engineers will be solely responsible for the strength
and safety of the structure.
• However, the roles of architects and structural engineers are very
much interactive and a unified approach of both will only result in
an "Integrated" structure, where every material of the total
structure takes part effectively for form, function, aesthetics,
strength as well as safety and durability.
• This is possible when architects have some basic understanding
of structural design and the structural engineers also have the
basic knowledge of architectural requirements
• The engineer and the architect should realize that the skeletal
structure without architecture is barren and mere architecture
without the structural strength and safety is disastrous.
• Safety, here, includes consideration of reserve strength,
limited deformation and durability.
• However, some basic knowledge of architectural and structural
requirements would facilitate to appreciate the possibilities and
limitations of exploiting the reinforced concrete material for
the design of innovative structures.
Objectives of the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Structures
The structures so designed should have
1. Acceptable probability of performing satisfactorily during their
intended life.
2. Should sustain all loads and deform within limits for construction and
use.
3. Should be durable.
4. Should adequately resist to the effects of misuse and fire.
1.Acceptable probability of performing satisfactorily during
their intended life.

• This objective does not include a guarantee that every

structure must perform satisfactorily during its
intended life.
• There are uncertainties in the design process both in
the estimation of the loads likely to be applied on the
structure and in the strength of the material.
Moreover, full guarantee would only involve more
cost.
• Thus, there is an acceptable probability of
performance of structures as given in standard codes
of practices of different countries.
2. Should sustain all loads and deform within limits
for construction and use.

• Adequate strengths and limited deformations

are the two requirements of the designed
structure.
• The structure should have sufficient strength
and the deformations must be within
prescribed limits due to all loads during
construction and use
•
• 1.1.3 shows the structure having insufficient
strength of concrete which fails in bending
compression with the increase of load,
though the deformation of the structure is
not alarming.
• However, sometimes structures are heavily loaded beyond
control. The structural engineer is not responsible to ensure the
strength and deformation within limit under such situation.
• The staircases in residential buildings during festival like
marriage etc.,
• Roof of the structures during flood in the adjoining area
• For buildings near some stadium during cricket or football
matches are some of the examples when structures get
overloaded.
Though, the structural designer is not responsible for the strength
and deformations under these situations, he, however, has to
ensure that the failure of the structures should give sufficient
time for the occupants to vacate. The structures, thus, should
give sufficient warning to the occupants and must not fail
suddenly.
3. The designed structures should be durable.

• The materials of reinforced concrete structures get affected by

the environmental conditions.

• Thus, structures having sufficient strength and permissible

deformations may have lower strength and exhibit excessive
deformations in the long run.
• The designed structures, therefore, must be checked for
durability.
• Separate checks for durability are needed for the steel
reinforcement and concrete. This will avoid problems of
frequent repairing of the structure.
4. The designed structures should adequately
resist to the effects of misuse and fire.
• Structures may be misused to prepare fire works, store fire
works, gas and other highly inflammable and/or explosive
chemicals.
• Fire may also take place as accidents or as secondary effects
during earthquake by overturning kerosene stoves or lantern,
electrical short circuiting etc.
• Properly designed structures should allow sufficient time
and safe route for the persons inside to vacate the
structures before they actually collapse.
 How to fulfill the objectives?
• All the above objectives can be fulfilled by understanding the
strength and deformation characteristics of the materials used
in the design as also their deterioration under hostile exposure.
• Out of the two basic materials concrete and steel, the steel is
produced in industries. Further, it is available in form of
standard bars and rods of specific diameters. However, sample
testing and checking are important to ensure the quality of
these steel bars or rods.
• The concrete, on the other hand, is prepared from several
materials (cement, sand, coarse aggregate, water and
admixtures, if any).
• Therefore, it is important to know the characteristic
properties of each of the materials used to prepare
concrete
• These materials and the concrete after its preparation
are also to be tested and checked to ensure the quality.
• The necessary information regarding the properties and
characteristic strength of these materials are available in the
standard codes of practices of different countries.
• It is necessary to follow these clearly defined standards for
materials, production, workmanship and maintenance, and
the performance of structures in service.
 Loads and Forces
(i) The main loads are:
• (a) Dead loads
• (b) Imposed loads or live loads
• (c) Wind loads
• (d) Snow loads
• (e) Erection loads

(ii) The main force is:

• (a) Earthquake force

(iii) The main effects are:

• (a) Shrinkage, creep and temperature effects
• (b) Foundation movements
• (c) Elastic axial shortening
• (d) Soil and fluid pressures
• (e) Vibration
• (f) Fatigue
• (g) Impact
• (h) Stress concentration effects due to application of point loads
 Dead loads- Part 1 of IS 875.
•Needless to mention that the dimensions of the cross section are to be assumed initially
which enable to estimate the dead loads from the known unit weights of the materials of
the structure.
•The accuracy of the estimation thus depends on the assumed values of the initial dimensions of
the cross section.
•The values of unit weights of the materials are specified in Part 1 of IS 875.
2. Imposed loads- Part 2 of IS 875.
• They are also known as live loads and consist of all loads other than the
dead loads of the structure.
• The values of the imposed loads depend on the functional requirement
of the structure.
• Residential buildings will have comparatively lower values of the imposed
loads than those of school or office buildings.
• The standard values are stipulated in Part 2 of IS 875.
 3.Wind loads- Part 3 of IS 875.
• These loads depend on the velocity of the wind at
the location of the structure, permeability of the
structure, height of the structure etc.
• They may be horizontal or inclined forces
depending on the angle of inclination of the roof
for pitched roof structures.
• They can even be suction type of forces
depending on the angle of inclination of the roof
or geometry of the buildings
• Wind loads are specified in Part 3 of IS 875.
 4. Snow loads - Part 4 of IS 875
• These are important loads for structures located in areas
having snow fall, which gets accumulated in different parts of
the structure depending on projections, height, slope etc.
• The standard values of snow loads are specified in Part 4 of
IS 875
 5.Earthquake forces- IS 1893
• Earthquake generates waves which move from the origin of its
location (epicenter) with velocities depending on the intensity
and magnitude of the earthquake.
• The impact of earthquake on structures depends on the
stiffness of the structure, stiffness of the soil media, height
and location of the structure etc. (Anim. 1.1.7).
• Accordingly, the country has been divided into several zones
depending on the magnitude of the earthquake.
• The earthquake forces are prescribed in IS 1893. Designers
have adopted equivalent static load approach or spectral
method.
 6. Shrinkage, creep and temperature effects

• Shrinkage, creep and temperature (high or low) may produce stresses and
cause deformations like other loads and forces .
• The safety and serviceability of structures are to be checked following the
stipulations of cls. 6.2.4, 5 and 6 of IS 456:2000 and Part 5 of IS 875.
 7. Other forces and effects
• It is difficult to prepare an exhaustive list of loads, forces and effects coming
onto the structures and affecting the safety and serviceability of them.
• However, IS 456:2000 stipulates the following forces and effects to be taken
into account in case they are liable to affect materially the safety and
serviceability of the structures.
• The relevant codes as mentioned therein are also indicated below

• Foundation movement (IS 1904) (Fig. 1.1.3)

• Elastic axial shortening
• Soil and fluid pressures (vide IS 875 - Part 5)
• Vibration
• Fatigue
• Impact (vide IS 875 - Part 5)
• Erection loads (Please refer to IS 875 - Part 2) (Fig. 1.1.4)
• Stress concentration effect due to point of application of load and the like.
 Combination of loads
• Design of structures would have become highly expensive in order to
maintain their serviceability and safety if all types of forces would have
acted on all structures at all times.
• Accordingly, the concept of characteristic loads has been accepted to
ensure that in at least 95 per cent of the cases, the characteristic loads
considered will be higher than the actual loads on the structure.
• However, the characteristic loads are to be calculated on the basis of
average/mean load of some logical combinations of all the loads mentioned
in sec. 1.1.6.1 to 7. These logical combinations are based on
• (i) the natural phenomena like wind and earthquake do not occur
simultaneously,
• (ii) live loads on roof should not be present when wind loads are
considered; to name a few. IS 875 Part 5 stipulates the combination of loads
to be considered in the design of structures.