Statistical Process

Control

By
Samir Mistry

© 2005 Wiley
 Learning Objectives
 Using statistical tools in measuring quality
characteristics
 Identify and describe causes of variation
 Describe the use of control charts
 Identify the differences between x-bar, R-,
p-, and
c-charts
 Explain process capability and process
capability index
 Three SQC Categories
 Traditional descriptive statistics
 e.g. the mean, standard deviation, and range
 Acceptance sampling used to randomly inspect a batch
of goods to determine acceptance/rejection
 Does not help to catch in-process problems
 Statistical process control (SPC)
 Involves inspecting the output from a process
 Quality characteristics are measured and charted
 Helpful in identifying in-process variations
 Sources of Variation
 Common causes of variation
 Random causes that we cannot identify
 Unavoidable
 e.g. slight differences in process variables like diameter, weight,
service time, temperature

 Assignable causes of variation

 Causes can be identified and eliminated
 e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair
 Distribution of Data
 Normal distributions  Skewed distribution
 SPC Methods-Control Charts
 Control Charts show sample data plotted on a graph with CL, UCL,
and LCL
 Control chart for variables are used to monitor characteristics that
can be measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time
 Control charts for attributes are used to monitor characteristics
that have discrete values and can be counted, e.g. % defective,
number of flaws in a shirt, number of broken eggs in a box
 Setting Control Limits
 Percentage of values  Control limits balance
under normal curve risks like Type I error
 Control Charts for Variables
 Use x-bar and R-
bar charts together
 Used to monitor
different variables
 X-bar & R-bar
Charts reveal
different problems
 In statistical control
on one chart, out
of control on the
other chart? OK?
X-bar Control Chart
 Control Chart for Range (R)
 Center Line and Control Limit  Factors for three sigma control limits
formulas: Sample Size
Factor for x-Chart Factors for R-Chart

(n)
A2 D3 D4
2 1.88 0.00 3.27
0.2  0.3  0.2
R  .233 3 1.02 0.00 2.57
3 4 0.73 0.00 2.28
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
UCL R  D4 R  2.28(.233)  .53 7 0.42 0.08 1.92
LCL R  D3 R  0.0(.233)  0.0 8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.34 0.18 1.82
10 0.31 0.22 1.78
11 0.29 0.26 1.74
12 0.27 0.28 1.72
13 0.25 0.31 1.69
14 0.24 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65
R Control Chart
 Second Method for the X-bar Chart Using
R-bar and the A2 Factor (table 6-1)
 Use this method when sigma for the process
distribution is not know
 Control limits solution:

0.2  0.3  0.2

R  .233
3

UCL x  x  A 2 R  15.92  0.73.233  16.09

LCL x  x  A 2 R  15.92  0.73.233  15.75

 Control Charts for Attributes –
P-Charts & C-Charts
 Use P-Charts for quality characteristics that
are discrete and involve yes/no or
good/bad decisions
 Number of leaking caulking tubes in a box of 48
 Number of broken eggs in a carton

 Use C-Charts for discrete defects when

there can be more than one defect per unit
 Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from
a production run
 Number of complaints per customer at a hotel
 P-Chart Example: A Production manager for a tire company has
inspected the number of defective tires in five random samples
with 20 tires in each sample. The table below shows the number of
defective tires in each sample of 20 tires. Calculate the control
limits.

Sample Number Number of Proportion

of Tires in Defective
 Solution:
Defective each
Tires Sample
# Defectives 9
1 3 20 .15 CL  p    .09
Total Inspected 100
2 2 20 .10
p(1  p ) (.09)(.91)
3 1 20 .05 σp    0.64
n 20
4 2 20 .10 UCL p  p  z σ   .09  3(.064)  .282
5 2 20 .05 LCL p  p  z σ   .09  3(.064)  .102  0
Total 9 100 .09
P-Control Chart
 C-Chart Example: The number of weekly customer
complaints are monitored in a large hotel using a
c-chart. Develop three sigma control limits using the
data table below.

Week Number of  Solution:

Complaints
1 3
2 2 # complaints 22
3 3 CL    2.2
# of samples 10
4 1
5 3 UCL c  c  z c  2.2  3 2.2  6.65
6 3
LCL c  c  z c  2.2  3 2.2  2.25  0
7 2
8 1
9 3
10 1
Total 22
C-Control Chart
 Process Capability
 Product Specifications
 Preset product or service dimensions, tolerances
 e.g. bottle fill might be 16 oz. ±.2 oz. (15.8oz.-16.2oz.)
 Based on how product is to be used or what the customer expects
 Process Capability – Cp and Cpk
 Assessing capability involves evaluating process variability relative to
preset product or service specifications
 Cp assumes that the process is centered in the specification range
specificat ion width USL  LSL
Cp  
process width 6σ
 Cpk helps to address a possible lack of centering of the process
 USL  μ μ  LSL 
Cpk  min  , 
 3σ 3σ 
Relationship between Process
Variability and Specification Width
 Three possible ranges for Cp

 Cp = 1, as in Fig. (a), process

variability just meets
specifications

 Cp ≤ 1, as in Fig. (b), process not

capable of producing within
specifications

 Cp ≥ 1, as in Fig. (c), process

exceeds minimal specifications

 One shortcoming, Cp assumes

that the process is centered on
the specification range

 Cp=Cpk when process is centered

 Computing the Cp Value at Cocoa Fizz: three bottling
machines are being evaluated for possible use at the Fizz plant.
The machines must be capable of meeting the design
specification of 15.8-16.2 oz. with at least a process
capability index of 1.0 (Cp≥1)

 The table below shows the information  Solution:

gathered from production runs on each
machine. Are they all acceptable?  Machine A
USL  LSL .4
Cp   1.33
6σ 6(.05)
Machine σ USL-LSL 6σ
 Machine B
A .05 .4 .3
Cp=
B .1 .4 .6
 Machine C
C .2 .4 1.2

Cp=
Computing the Cpk Value at Cocoa Fizz
 Design specifications call for a
target value of 16.0 ±0.2 OZ.
(USL = 16.2 & LSL = 15.8)
 Observed process output has now
shifted and has a µ of 15.9 and a
σ of 0.1 oz.
 16.2  15.9 15.9  15.8 
Cpk  min  , 
 3(.1) 3(.1) 
.1
Cpk   .33
.3
 Cpk is less than 1, revealing that
the process is not capable
 ±6 Sigma versus ± 3 Sigma
 Motorola coined “six-sigma” to  PPM Defective for ±3σ
describe their higher quality versus ±6σ quality
efforts back in 1980’s

 Six-sigma quality standard is

now a benchmark in many
industries
 Before design, marketing ensures
customer product characteristics
 Operations ensures that product
design characteristics can be met
by controlling materials and
processes to 6σ levels
 Other functions like finance and
accounting use 6σ concepts to
control all of their processes
 Acceptance Sampling
 Definition: the third branch of SQC refers to the
process of randomly inspecting a certain number
of items from a lot or batch in order to decide
whether to accept or reject the entire batch
 Different from SPC because acceptance sampling
is performed either before or after the process
rather than during
 Sampling before typically is done to supplier material
 Sampling after involves sampling finished items before shipment
or finished components prior to assembly
 Used where inspection is expensive, volume is
high, or inspection is destructive
 Acceptance Sampling Plans
 Goal of Acceptance Sampling plans is to determine the
criteria for acceptance or rejection based on:
 Size of the lot (N)
 Size of the sample (n)
 Number of defects above which a lot will be rejected (c)
 Level of confidence we wish to attain
 There are single, double, and multiple sampling plans
 Which one to use is based on cost involved, time consumed, and cost of
passing on a defective item
 Can be used on either variable or attribute measures, but
more commonly used for attributes
 Operating Characteristics (OC)
Curves
 OC curves are graphs which
show the probability of
accepting a lot given various
proportions of defects in the lot
 X-axis shows % of items that
are defective in a lot- “lot
quality”
 Y-axis shows the probability or
chance of accepting a lot
 As proportion of defects
increases, the chance of
accepting lot decreases
 Example: 90% chance of
accepting a lot with 5%
defectives; 10% chance of
accepting a lot with 24%
defectives
 Implications for Managers
 How much and how often to inspect?
 Consider product cost and product volume
 Consider process stability
 Consider lot size
 Where to inspect?
 Inbound materials
 Finished products
 Prior to costly processing
 Which tools to use?
 Control charts are best used for in-process production
 Acceptance sampling is best used for
inbound/outbound