MEC 521: Vibration

What is Vibration?

 Scientific Definition
Any motion that repeats itself after an
interval of time

 Engineering Definition
Deals with the relationship between
excitations (inputs) and responses (output)
oscillatory motion of mechanical systems
Introduction to Vibration
Wind induced Vibration
The Tacoma Narrows
Bridge Disaster

November 7, 1940
Turbomachinery
Other Examples
Is all Vibration Bad??
Desirable Vibrations
Concepts from vibrations
NEWTON’S LAWS

 First law:
If there are no forces acting upon a particle, then the particle will
move in a straight line with constant velocity.

 Second law:
A particle acted upon by a force moves so that the force vector is
equal to the time rate of change of the linear momentum vector.

 Third law:
When two particles exert forces upon one another, the forces lie
along the line joining the particles and the corresponding force
vectors are the negative of each other.
Basic Concepts
 Vibration : Any motion that repeats itself after an
interval of time (e.g. swinging of a pendulum)

 A vibratory system includes:

Means for storing potential energy (springs or elasticity)
Means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia)
Means for gradually losing energy (damping)

 The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its

potential energy to kinetic energy and vice versa. If
damping exists, energy is dissipated in each cycle.
Degree of Freedom of a system:

The minimum number of independent coordinates required

to determine completely the positions of all parts of a
system at any instant of time

Example of SDOF systems

Two degree of freedom system

 Some examples of two degree of freedom

systems are shown in the figure. The first
figure shows a two mass – two spring system
that is described by two linear coordinates x1
and x2. The second figure denotes
 a two rotor system whose motion can be
specified in terms of θ1 and θ2. The motion of
the system in the third figure can be
described completely either by X and θ or by
x, y and X.
MDOF
Discrete and continuous systems
 Discrete and continuous systems
 A large number of practical systems can be described using a
finite number of degrees of freedom, such as the simple system
shown in the previous slides.

 Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic

members, have an infinite number of degrees of freedom as
shown in the figure. Since the beam in the figure has an infinite
number of mass points, we need an infinite number of
coordinates to specify its deflected configuration. The infinite
number of coordinates defines its elastic deflection curve. Thus,
the cantilever beam has infinite number of degrees of freedom.
 Discrete and continuous systems
 Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are called
discrete or lumped parameter systems, and those with an infinite
number of degrees of freedom are called continuous or distributed
systems.

 Most of the time, continuous systems are approximated as discrete

systems, and solutions are obtained in a simple manner. Although
treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the analytical
methods available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a
narrow selection of problems, such as uniform beams, slender rods and
thin plates.

 Hence, most of the practical systems are studied by treating them as

finite lumped masses, springs and dampers. In general, more accurate
results are obtained by increasing the number of masses, springs and
dampersthat is by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.
Classification of Vibration
 Free vibration: If a system, after an initial disturbance is left to
vibrate on its own, the ensuing vibration is known as free vibration. No
external force acts on the system. The oscillation of a simple pendulum
is an example of free vibration.

 Forced vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force (often

a repeating type of force), the resulting vibration is known as forced
vibration.

If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the

natural frequencies of the system, a condition known as resonance
occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large oscillations.
Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges, turbines, and
airplane wings have been assoicated with then occurrence of
resonance.
 Classification of Vibration
 Undamped vibration: If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or
other resistance during oscillation, the vibration is known as undamped
vibration.
 If any energy is lost in this way however, it is called damped vibration.

 While the spring forms a physical model for storing kinetic energy and
hence causing vibration, the dashpot, or damper, forms the physical
model for dissipating energy and damping the response of a mechanical
system. A dashpot consists of a piston fit into a cylinder filled with oil.
This piston is perforated with holes so that motion of the piston in the
oil is possible. The laminar flow of the oil through the perforations as
the piston moves causes a damping force on the piston.
 Classification of Vibration
 Linear vibration:

If all the basic components of a vibratory system‐the

spring, the mass, and the damper, behave linearly, the
resulting vibration is known as linear vibration. The
differential equations that govern the behaviour of
vibratory linear systems are linear. Therefore, the
principle of superposition holds.

 Nonlinear vibration:

If however, any of the basic components behave

nonlinearly, the vibration is called ‘nonlinear
vibration’. The differential equations that govern the
behaviour of vibratory non‐linear systems are
non‐linear. Therefore, the principle of superposition
does not hold.
 Deterministic Vibration
If the value or magnitude of the excitation
(force or motion) acting on a vibratory
system is known at any given time
 Nondeterministic or random Vibration
When the value of the excitation at a given
time cannot be predicted
 Free Vibration of Single Degree
of Freedom Systems

 Harmonic Motion
 Free vibration of undamped SDOF
systems
 Free vibration of damped SDOF
systems
Harmonic motion
 Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in
the case of a simple pendulum.

 If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of

time, it is called periodic motion.

 The simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic

motion.
Harmonic motion
 Shown in the figure is a vector OP
that rotates counterclockwise with
constant angular velocity ω.

 At any time t, the angle that OP

makes with the horizontal is θ = ωt.

 Let y be the projection of OP on the

vertical axis. Then y = A sin ωt. Here
y, a function of time is plotted
versus ωt.
Harmonic motion
 A particle that experiences this motion
is said to have harmonic motion.

 The maximum displacement of a

vibrating body from its equilibrium
position is called the amplitude of
vibration.

 Range 2A is the peak to peak

displacement.
Harmonic motion
 Frequency is the number of cycles per unit time.

 The most common unit of time used in vibration analysis is seconds.

Cycles per second is called Hertz.

 The time the cycle takes to repat itself is the period T. In terms of
the period, the frequency is:
1
f 

 The frequency f is related to ω:


f 
2

  2f
Harmonic motion
 Phase angle: Consider two vibratory motions denoted by:
x1  A1 sin t
x2  A2 sin( t   )
 These two harmonic motions are called synchronous because
they have the same frequency or angular velocity ω. Two
synchronous oscillations need not have the same amplitude, and
they need not attain their maximum values at the same time as
shown in the figure.
Harmonic motion
In this figure, the second vector OP2 leads the first one OP1 by
an angle φ known as the phase angle. This means that the
maximum of the second vector would occur φ radians earlier
than that of the first vector. These two vectors are said to
have a phase difference of φ.
Harmonic motion
 The fundamental kinematical quantities used to describe the motion of
a particle are displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors.

 The acceleration of a particle is given by:

 Thus, displacement, velocity, and relationships in harmonic motion:

Operations on harmonic functions
 Using complex number representation, the rotating vector can
be X written as:

 where ω denotes the circular frequency (rad/sec) of rotation of

the vector in counterclockwise direction. The differentiation of
the harmonics given X by the above equation gives:

 Thus the displacement, velocity and acceleration can be

expressed as:
Operations on harmonic functions
The acceleration vector leads
the velocity vector by 90
degrees and the velocity vector
leads the displacement vector
by 90 degrees.
Harmonic motion
 Natural frequency: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the
frequency with which it oscillates without external forces is known as its natural frequency.
A vibratory system having n degrees of freedom will have, in general, n distinct natural
frequencies of vibration.

 Beats: When two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are added, the
resulting motion exhibits a phenomenon known as beats. For example if:

 The addition of these two motions yield

Harmonic motion
Beats:

Using the relation

The first equation can be written as:

⎠⎠
Harmonic motion
Beats:

It can be seen that the resulting motion x(t) represents a cosine wave with
frequency which is approximately equal to ω and with a varying amplitude .
Whenever, the amplitude reaches a maximum it is called a beat.

In machines and structures the beating phenomenon occurs when forcing frequency is
close to the natural frequency of the system. We will later return to this topic.
Harmonic motion
Octave:When the maximum value of a range of
frequency is twice its minimum value, it is known as
an octave band.

• For example, each of the ranges 75‐150 Hz,

150‐300 Hz, and 300‐600Hz can be called an octave
band.

• In each case, the maximum and minimum values of

frequency, which have a ratio of 2:1, are said to
differ by an octave
Spring elements
 Linear spring is a type of mechanical link that is
generally assumed to have negligible mass and
damping
 Spring force is given by:
F = kx
F = spring force
K =spring stiffness or spring constant
X = deformation (displacement of one end with respect to
the other)
 Workdone (U) is deforming a spring or strain energy
is given by:
Combination of Springs
1. Springs in parallel

1. Springs in serial
Example

Model each of the systems of Figure 1 by a mass attached to a

single spring of an equivalent stiffness.
Damping Elements
Viscous Damping
Damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating
body in a fluid medium such as air, water, gas, and oil.

Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping

Damping force is constant in magnitude in direction to that of
motion of the vibrating between dry surfaces

Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping

Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material during
deformation due to friction between internal planes
CLASSIFICATION OF
VIBRATION

46 ERT 452
 Classification of Vibration

 Free Vibration:
A system is left to vibrate on its own after an
initial disturbance and no external force acts on
the system. E.g. simple pendulum
 Forced Vibration:
A system that is subjected to a repeating
external force. e.g. oscillation arises from diesel
engines
 Resonance occurs when the frequency of the
external force coincides with one of the
natural frequencies of the system
47
 Classification of Vibration
 Undamped Vibration:
When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction
or other resistance during oscillations
 Damped Vibration:
When any energy is lost or dissipated in
friction or other resistance during oscillations
 Linear Vibration:
When all basic components of a vibratory
system, i.e. the spring, the mass and the damper
behave linearly
48
 Classification of Vibration
 Nonlinear Vibration:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
 Deterministic Vibration:
If the value or magnitude of the excitation
(force or motion) acting on a vibratory system
is known at any given time
 Nondeterministic or random Vibration:
When the value of the excitation at a given
time cannot be predicted

49
 Classification of Vibration

 Examples of deterministic and random

excitation:

50
 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing
Equations
Step 4: Derive
Interpretation of the Results
system/componen
t Free body
diagram
Find the response
(FBD)
(solve problem
Response (result):
method)
Displacement,
51 velocities &
 Introduction –SDOF
A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates
only under an initial disturbance with no external forces
acting after that initial disturbance

• One coordinate (x) is sufficient to specify the position of

the mass at any time
• There is no external force applied to the mass
• no element that causes dissipation of the energy during
the motion of the mass.
• the amplitude of the motion remains constant with time,
undamped system
Free Vibration of an Undamped System
Free Vibration of an Undamped
System
Free Vibration of an Undamped System

Equation of Motion using other methods

• Principle of Conservation of Energy

• Principle of Virtual Work

• D’Alembert’s Principle
Example 1

Derive the equation of motion of the pendulum in Figure 1.

Mass of pendulum bob is m and assume the rod 𝑙 has a negligible
mass.

Figure 2 (a) A schematic of a pendulum. (b) The free-body

diagram of (a).
Example

Find the equation of motion for the system of Figure 2, and find the
natural frequency.
In particular, using static equilibrium along with Newton’s law,determine
what effect gravity has on the equation of motion and the system’s
natural frequency.

Assume the block slides without friction.

A foot pedal mechanism for a machine is crudely modeled as a
pendulum connected to a spring as illustrated in Figure 3. The purpose
of the spring is provide a return force for the pedal action. Assume
that the angular deflections are small, such that the spring deflection
can be approximated by the arc length; that the pedal may be treated
as a point mass; and that pendulum rod has negligible mass. The pedal
is horizontal when the spring is at its free length.
Determine the differential equations governing the motion of the
system by using the equivalent systems method. Use the
generalized coordinates shown in Figure 4
FV of an undamped solution
x(t )  Ce st
substituting

d2
m 2 (Ce st )  k (Ce st )  0
dt
C (ms 2  k )  0

1 1

k 2
k 2

ms  k  0
2
s       i n n   
m m

Characteristic equation eigenvalues

The general solution

i n t  i n t
x(t )  C1e  C2 e
 i t
Using e  cos t  i sin t
x(t )  A1 cos nt  A2 sin nt
A and C can be determined from initial conditions

The initial conditions at t = 0

x(t )  A1  x0 x (t )  n A2  x0

The solution is

x0
x(t )  x0 cos nt  sin nt
n
Example

Obtain the free response of 2𝑥ሷ + 128𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡

a. in the form 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑛 𝑡

b. In the form 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − ∅) and
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ∅)
c. Initial condition are x(0) = 0.05 m and 𝑥(0)
ሶ
= 0.3 m/s
Example

A 10 kg body is suspended from a spring of constant k = 2.5 kN/m. At time t = 0, it has a

downward velocity of 0.5 m/s as it passes through the position of static equilibrium.
Determine

(a) the static spring deflection st

(b) the natural frequency of the system in both rad/sec (n) and cycles/sec (ƒn)
(c) the system period 
(d) the displacement x as a function of time, where x is measured from the position of
static equilibrium
(e) the maximum velocity vmax attained by the mass
(ƒ) the maximum acceleration amax attained by the mass.

k = 2.5 kN/m

m = 10 kg
Example
A simplified version of a pendulum
used in impact tests is shown in the
figure.
Derive the equation of motion and
determine the period for small
oscillations about the pivot. The
mass center G is located a distance
r = 0.9 m from O, and the radius of
gyration about O is kO 0.95 m. The
friction of the bearing is negligible.
Example

The uniform bar of mass m and length l

is pivoted at its center. The spring
of constant k at the left end is
attached to a stationary surface, but
the right-end spring, also of constant
k, is attached to a support which
undergoes a harmonic
motion given by yB = b sin t. Determine
the driving frequency c which causes
resonance.
Example

Derive the equation of motion for the

homogeneous circular cylinder, which
rolls without slipping. If the cylinder
mass is 50 kg, the cylinder radius 0.5 m,
the spring constant 75 N/m, and the
damping coefficient 10 Ns/m
determine

(a) the undamped natural frequency

(b) the damping ratio
(c) the damped natural frequency
(d) the period of the damped system.

In addition, determine x(t) as a

function of time if the cylinder is
released from rest at the position x =
0.2 m when t 0.
 Example
The 8-kg body is moved 0.2 m to the right of the equilibrium position
and released from rest at time t = 0. Determine its displacement at
time t = 2 s. The viscous damping coefficient c is 20 and the spring
stiffness k is 32 N/m.
Example
The vertical plunger has a mass of 2.5 kg
and is supported by the two springs,
which are always in compression.

Calculate the natural frequency ωn of

vibration of the plunger if it is deflected
from the equilibrium position and
released from rest. Friction in the guide
is negligible.
Determination of Damping by Experiment

We often need to experimentally determine

the value of the damping ratio ξ for an
underdamped system. The usual reason is
that the value of the viscous damping
coefficient c is not otherwise well known.
To determine the damping, we may excite
the system by initial conditions and obtain
a plot of the displacement x versus time t,
such as that shown schematically in Fig.
We then measure two successive
amplitudes x1 and x2 a full cycle apart and
compute their ratio

x1 Ce  nt1
  n (t1  d )  en d
x2 Ce
 x1  2
  ln    n d   n
The logarithmic decrement  x2  n 1   2
δ is defined as

 
2 2   2