BASIC CHEMISTRY

CHM 160
Chapter 2
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same
size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result
in their creation or destruction.
 Law of Conservation of Mass
- Matter can be neither created nor destroyed

16 X + 8Y 8 X2 Y
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
 Element
- A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.

 Atom
-The basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical
combination

 Proton
- The positively charged particles in the nucleus

 Neutron
- Electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than
that of protons

 Electron
- Negatively charged particles
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

electron
mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

6
Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z)
= number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A)
= number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
 Example:
Mass Number 16
Atomic Number 8
O Element Symbol

 Mass number (A) = 16

 Atomic number (Z) = 8 (indicating 8 protons in nucleus)
 Number of neutrons = 16-8
=8
 Number of electrons = 8 (when the element is neutral)
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei or
atoms that have the same atomic number but different
mass number.
Examples:

1) Hydrogen
1H 2 H (D) 3 H (T)
1 1 1

2) Uranium
235 U 238 U
92 92
 Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 MOLECULES AND IONS
• A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces

H2 H2 O NH3 CH4

• A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

• Examples: H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements
• A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms
• Examples: O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
• An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or
negative charge.
• Cation – ion with a positive charge
- If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons

• anion – ion with a negative charge

- If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion.

17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl -
18 electrons
• A monatomic ion contains only one atom
• Examples: Na+, Cl-, Ca2+ , O2- , Al3+ , N3-

• A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

• Examples: OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

• metals tend to form cations

• nonmetals tend to form anions
Examples:
1) How many protons and electrons are in 27 3+ ?
13 Al
No. of protons = 13
Charge = 3+ (loss of 3 electrons)
No. of electrons = 13 – 3 = 10

2) How many protons and electrons are in 78

34 Se2- ?

No. of protons = 34
Charge = 2- (accept of 2 electrons)
No. of electrons = 34 + 2 = 36
 CHEMICAL FORMULAS
 A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element
in the smallest unit of a substance
 Allotrope: one of two or more distinct forms of an element.
- Example: two allotropic forms of the element carbon which
are diamond and graphite.
 An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the
atoms in a substance
Molecular formula Empirical formula
H2O H2O
C6H12 O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2

 A structural formula shows how atoms are bonded to one another in

a molecule
Formulas and Models
 Formula of Ionic Compounds
• ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and an
anions
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero
• Examples: NaCI (consists of equal numbers of Na+ and Cl-)
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.
 Method of Writing Chemical Formula for Ionic
Compounds
1) Aluminium oxide (containing Al3+ and O2- )

Al3+ O2-
Charge 3+ 2-

Simplest ration
of ion combined 2 3

So, 2 cation Al3+ combined with 3 anion O2- to form

aluminium oxide
Sum of charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0

Formula: Al2O3
 Method of Writing Chemical Formula for Ionic
Compounds
2) Ammonium carbonate (containing NH4+ and CO32- )

NH4+ CO32-
Charge 1+ 2-

Simplest ration
of ion combined 2 1

So, 2 cation NH4+ combined with 1 anion CO32- to

form ammonium carbonate
Sum of charges is 2(+1) + 1(-2) = 0

Formula: (NH4)2CO3
 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

1) Elements:
 Refer to the periodic table

- Examples:
i) Na = sodium
ii) Si = silicon
2) Ionic Compounds
 Often a metal (cation) + nonmetal (anion)
 Binary compounds (compounds formed from two
elements)
- first element named is the metal cation followed
by the nonmetallic anion.
 Anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name
 Examples:
i) BaCl2 = barium chloride
ii)K2O = potassium oxide
iii) Mg(OH)2 = Magnesium hydroxide
 Transition metal ionic compounds
- older nomenclature system:
- ending “ous” cation with fewer positive charges
- ending “ic” to the cation with more positive charges
- examples: Fe2+ ferrous ion
Fe3+ ferric ion
- indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

Examples:
i) FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride
ii) FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride
iii) Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide
3) Molecular compounds
- place the name of the first element in the
formula first and second element is named
by adding “-ide” to the root of element name
- Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
- Common names: H2O, NH3, CH4
- Element furthest to the left in a period and
closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
- If more than one compound can be formed
from the same elements, use prefixes to
indicate number of each kind of atom
- Last element name ends in “-ide”
 Guidelines in naming compounds
with prefixes

 The prefix ‘mono-’ maybe omitted for the first

element.
 For oxides, the ending ‘a’ in the prefix is
sometimes omitted.
- for example: N2O4 maybe called dinitrogen
teroxide rather than dinitrogen teraoxide.
Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

36
4) Acids and bases
• An acid can be defined as a substance that yields hydrogen ions
(H+) when dissolved in water.
• For example: HCl gas and HCl in water
- Pure substance, hydrogen chloride
- Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−), hydrochloric acid
• Anions whose names end in “-ide” form acids with a “hydro-”
prefix and an “-ic” ending.
• An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and
another element.
• Examples:
i) HNO3 nitric acid
ii) H2CO3 carbonic acid
iii) H3PO4 phosphoric acid
iv) HCIO3 chloric acid
v) H2SO4 sulfuric acid
vi) HIO3 iodic acid
vii)HBrO3 bromic acid
Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

39
 The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids, are as
follows:

1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the anion’s
name ends with “-ate”.
2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous” acid, the
anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the
hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate the number of
H ions present.
For example:
 H PO Phosphoric acid
3 4
 H PO - dihydrogen phosphate
2 4
 HPO 2- hydrogen phosphate
4
 PO43- phosphate
• A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

• Examples:

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
5) Hydrates
• Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of
water molecules attached to them.
• Examples:
i) BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate
ii) LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate
iii) MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
iv) Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
 ATOMIC MASS
• Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu)
• One atomic mass unit – a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the
mass of one carbon-12 atom.

By definition:
1 atom 12 C “weighs” 12 amu

On this scale:
1
H = 1.008 amu
16
O = 16.00 amu
 The average atomic mass is the weighted average of
all of the naturally occurring isotopes of the
element.

Average atomic mass of natural carbon

= (0.9890)(12.00000 amu)+(0.0110)(13.00335 amu)
= 12.01 amu
Example:

Naturally occurring
lithium is:
7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)

Average atomic mass of lithium:

(7.42 x 6.015) + (92.58 x 7.016)

= 6.941 amu
100
Average atomic mass (6.941)
 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE
MOLAR MASS
• The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles

Dozen = 12

Pair = 2

• The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains

as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly
12.00 grams of 12 C

1 mol = NA = 6.0221367 x 1023

Avogadro’s number (NA)

Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of atoms in grams

1 mole 12 C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g

1 12 C atom = 12.00 amu

1 mole 12 C atoms = 12.00 g 12 C

1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
 ÷ molar mass (g/mol) x NA

Mass of No. of No. of

element (m) moles (n) atoms/molecules (N)

x molar mass (g/mol) ÷ NA

NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Example:

How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K) ?

1 mol K = 39.10 g K
1 mol K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

No. of moles = 0.551 g

39.10 g/mol
= 0.014 mol

No. of atoms = 0.014 mol x 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

= 8.43 x 1021 atoms K
 MOLECULAR MASS
• Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 64.07 amu
SO2

For any molecule

molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu

1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2
Example

How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of C3H8O ?

1 mol C3H8O = (3 x 12) + (8 x 1) + 16 = 60 g C3H8O

1 mol C3H8O molecules = 8 mol H atoms

1 mol H = 6.022 x 1023 atoms H

1 mol C3H8O 8 mol H atoms 6.022 x 1023 H atoms

72.5 g C3H8O x x x
60 g C3H8O 1 mol C3H8O 1 mol H atoms

= 5.82 x 1024 atoms H

• Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu

1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl
Example:

What is the formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?

1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2

3 Ca 3 x 40.08
2P 2 x 30.97
8O + 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound

n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of

the compound

2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
 Determination of empirical formula
Determine the empirical formula of a compound that has the
following percent composition by mass:
* Assume we have 100 g of the compound, then each percentage
can be converted directly to grams.
K: 24.75%, Mn: 34.77%, O: 40.51%
Elements K Mn O
Mass (g) 24.75 34.77 40.51
mol 24.75 g 34.77 g 40.51 g
39.10 g/mol 54.94 g/mol 16.00 g/mol
= 0.6330 = 0.6329 = 2.532

Simplest 0.6330 0.6329 2.532

ratio 0.6329 0.6329 0.6329
≈1 =1 ≈4
Empirical formula = KMnO4
Determination of empirical
formula
Elements C H O
Mass (g) 40.92 4.58 54.50
mol 40.92 g 4.58 g 54.50 g
12.01 1.008 16.00
g/mol g/mol g/mol
= 3.407 = 4.54 = 3.406
Simplest 3.407 4.54 3.406
ratio 3.406 3.406 3.406
≈1 x 3 =1.33 x 3 =1 x 3
=3 =4 =3

Empirical formula = C3H4O3

 Determination of Molecular Formula

Elements N O
Mass (g) 1.52 3.47
Determination of
empirical formula mol 1.52 g 3.47 g
14.01 g/mol 16.00 g/mol
= 0.108 = 0.217
Simplest 0.108 0.217
ratio 0.108 0.108
≈1 ≈2
Empirical formula = NO2
Determination of molecular formula
1) Empirical molar mass
= 14.01 g/mol + 2(16.0g/mol) = 46.01 g/ mol
molar mass compound between 90 g/mol-95 g/mol

2) Determine the ratio between the molar mass and

empirical formula

Molar mass = 90 g/mol ≈2

Empirical molar mass 46.01 g/mol

Molecular formula = 2(NO2)

= N2O4
Actual molecular molar mass = 2(14.01 g/mol) + 4(16.00)
= 92.02 g/mol
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction
• A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens
during a chemical reaction
reactants products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O
 How to “Read” Chemical Equations

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 g MgO

NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left

side and the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the
right side of the equation.

Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to

make the number of atoms of each element the same on both
sides of the equation. Do not change the subscripts.

2C2H6 NOT C4H12

 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only

one reactant and one product.

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon multiply CO2 by 2

on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more reactants

or products.

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by 72

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

C2H6 + 7 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O remove fraction

2
multiply both sides
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O by 2
 Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of

each type of atom on both sides of the equation.

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

4 C (2 x 2) 4C
12 H (2 x 6) 12 H (6 x 2)
14 O (7 x 2) 14 O (4 x 2 + 6)

Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
 AMOUNTS OF REACTANTS AND
PRODUCTS

• Stoichiometry:
- comparison of coefficients in a balanced equation
- The quantitative study of reactants and products
in a chemical reaction
1. Write balanced chemical equation
2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the number
of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
Example:

Methanol burns in air according to the equation

2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what mass of
water is produced?

grams CH3OH moles CH3OH moles H2O grams H2O

molar mass coefficients molar mass

CH3OH chemical equation H2O

1) Moles of CH3OH = 209 g

32 g/mol
= 6.53 mol
 2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
2) From the equation, 2 mol CH3OH is used to give 4 mol H2O, if we
have 6.53 mol CH3OH, how many mole that H2O will produce?

2 mol CH3OH = 4 mol H2O

6.53 mol CH3OH = ? mol H2O
= 4 mol H2O x 6.53 mol CH3OH
2 mol CH3OH
= 13.06 mol H2O
3) Mass of H2O
= mol x molar mass H2O
= 13.06 mol x 18 g/mol
= 235.1 g
 LIMITING
REAGENT
• Reactant used up first in the reaction.

2NO + O2 2NO2

NO is the limiting reagent

O2 is the excess reagent

• Excess reagents: the reactants

present in quantities greater than
necessary to react with the quantity
of the limiting reagent
 LIMITING
REAGENT
In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3
2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2Fe
Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

Determination of limiting reagent and excess reagent

1) Mole of Al 2) Mole of Fe2O3
= 124 g = 601 g
27.0 g/mol 160 g/mol
= 4.59 mol = 3.76 mol
3) Divide moles of Al and Fe2O3 with their stoichiometric
coefficients
i) Al ii) Fe2O3
= 4.59 mol = 2.295 mol = 3.76 mol = 3.76 mol
2 1

• The reagent that show the smallest no. of mole is a limiting

reagent, while another reagent is a excess reagent.
• So, Al is a limiting reagent, while Fe2O3 is a excess reagent.
4) From the equation, 2 mol Al is used to give 1 mol Al2O3 , if we
have 4.59 mol Al, how many mole that Al2O3 will produce?
2 mol Al produce 1 mol Al2O3
4.59 mol Al = 1mol Al2O3 x 4.59 mol Al
2 mol Al
= 2.295 mol Al2O3
5) Mass of Al2O3
= mol x molar mass Al2O3
= 2.295 mol x 102.0 g/mol
= 234 g
 REACTION YIELD

• Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would

result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

• Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100%
Theoretical Yield