Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Ch. 15
 Evolution
• Evolution means • A scientific theory is
change over time NOT just a belief, it is
a well-supported
tested explanation.
 Darwin
• In 1831 Darwin sets • In 1858, Darwin and
sail on the HMS Wallace publish their
Beagle. theories on evolution.
• In 1844 he writes his
theory on the origin of • Evolution means
species. change over time.
 History of Darwin’s Studies
• Darwin went on an around-
the-world trip on the HMS • He studied 13
Beagle and traveled to the different species and
Galapagos Islands. saw how they adapted
to their environment.
• He particularly liked and
observed the finches. He
also observed the tortoises
on different islands.
• He observed each different
group had its own niche.
 Fossils
• A fossil is the • Fossils are found in
preserved remains or sedimentary rock
imprints of ancient formed when sand and
organisms. silt settle to the bottom
of water.
• Someone who studies • Not all animals turn
fossils is called a are fossilized, why?
paleontologist. • Do you think we have
a complete fossil
record?
 Determining ages of Fossils
• Relative dating- • Radioactive dating
– Looks at the layer of – Determined by
the earth they are remaining radioactive
found. isotopes the fossil
– The oldest fossils will contains.
be deeper.
 Radioactive Dating
• What is an isotope?
• Scientists estimate the
age of fossils by
analyzing the isotope
in the rock around
fossils.
• Some isotopes are
radioactive and
undergo radioactive
decay.
 Half-life
• During radioactive • Radioactive potassium
(40K) decays to produce
decay, the isotope argon gas. Its half-life is
gives off particles and 1.3 billion years.
energy changing its
identity to a different
element. • The half-life of an element
is the time it takes for half
• It occurs during a of the atoms in a sample to
constant rate, called its undergo radioactive
half life. decay.
 Types of radioactive dating
• Potassium-Argon dating is
• Carbon dating: 2 types
used for rocks that are
suspected billions of years • 14C:12C
old. – Radioactive 14C
• In older rocks the ratio of – Non-radioactive 12C,
Argon to 40K will be higher most common
than in younger rocks.
Why?
• Because in the younger
rocks the K has not yet
started to decay to Argon.
 Ways to determine ages of
fossils.
• K-Ar dating • Radiocarbon dating
– Scientists looks at the age of – Living org. absorb12C and 14C.
rocks and fossils that are The ratio is constant.
found near them are assumed – When org. dies it no longer
to be the same age. absorbs C. 14C (radioactive)
begins to decay and decreases
Solve: while 12C (non-radioactive)
stays the same.
8g of 14C in a fossil and 16g in
living org. How old? – 14C half-life every 5600 years.
Look at ratio of 14C to 12C and
compare to living org.
3g 14C in a fossil and 12g 12C. .
 Tracking Changes
• According to • The phylogeny (or
evolutionary theory, evolutionary tree), is
all life originated from not linear, it branches
a common unicellular and stops and some of
ancestor through it is incomplete.
natural selection.
• Scientists use
radioactive dating to
calculate fossil’s age.
 Time line of Evolution
• Explanations of the • In 1769 Charles
origin of diversity go Bonnet observed that
back to the Greek’s fossils do not resemble
2000ya. They modern organisms and
theorized that an theorizes they are
organisms form is from a previous era.
related to it’s function
 An Ancient, Changing Earth
• In 1785 James Hutton • Charles Lyell agreed
proposed the Earth is and wrote a book in
shaped by geological 1833 the explained the
forces that took place shaping of Earth’s
over extremely long geological features.
periods of time. He • He gave his book to
estimated the earth is Darwin before Darwin
millions, not set sail.
thousands of years old.
 Popular Belief
• Prior to the studies of Charles Darwin, the most
widespread belief was that all known species were
created at the same time and remained unchanged
throughout history.
• Some scientists at the time believed that features an
individual acquired during a lifetime could be passed
onto its offspring, and the species could gradually
change to fit an environment better.

2.1
 Lamark
• In 1809 Jean-Baptiste • 3 principles to his theory:
Lamarke hypothesized that 1. Organisms constantly strive
“simple” organisms emerge to improve themselves.
spontaneously and evolve to
2. Most used body structures
greater “complexity”.
develop and unused waste
• Lamark’s hypothesis about away.
acquired characteristics was
3. A structure is modified by
disproved by Weisman, who
use or disuse, the
concluded that changes in an
modification is inherited to
individual during a lifetime
the offspring. (Inheritance of
do not affect its offspring.
acquired characteristics.)
 Darwin’s Arguments
• Darwin argued that only biologically inherited
characteristics were advantageous in surviving and
reproducing. The offspring would also inherit and
pass on those advantages, and over generations the
aggregation of these inherited advantages would
lead to new species.

2.2
 Population Growth
• In 1798 Malthus • Do you agree of
reasoned that if the disagree with
human population Malthus?
continued to grow
unchecked, sooner or
later there would be
insufficient living
space and food for
everyone.
 Population Control
• Darwin read Malthus’
work reasoned that
there is always
competition for food,
water and space in the
environment. The
individuals that
survive the
competition can then
reproduce.
 Returning Home

• When he returned • He found that any domesticated

home he studied and plant or animal bred to
read other people’s accentuate desirable
materials about characteristics is the result of
geological changes. artificial selection. (Natural
• He also studied the provides variation and humans
selective breeding of select the variations useful)
domestic animals and • Many veggies we eat today
crops. came from the wild mustard
plant through artificial
selection.
 Origin of Species
• Darwin’s book, published in 1859, was a quick
success. It came from the clear and
understandable argument that natural selection
and selective breeding of animals was in wide use
at the time. There was a massive array of
biological and fossil evidence to support the
argument.
• Selective breeding: breeding of organisms to
produce certain desired traits in their offspring.

2.3
 Support From Others
• After the publication of Origin of Species,
biological evolution was supported by the
rediscovery of the genetics experiments of Gregor
Mendel, by the identification of genes and how they
are sorted in reproduction, and by the discovery that
the genetic code found in DNA is the same for
almost all organisms.
• Darwin came to his conclusions prior to Mendel’s
work.
2.4
 Variation
• A species consists of • Give an example of
interbreeding variation among a
populations organisms species.
that produce healthy
offspring.
• Within a species there
is much variation or
differences between
members of a
population.
 Variation
• Variation can be • Examples of how
dramatic or subtle. organisms may vary:
– Fur color
– Shape of teeth
– Size
– Markings
– Biochemically
– Eye color
 Other things that cause Variation
Inherited variation: • Most mutations are either
1. Mutation neutral or harmful,
2. Recombination sometimes they may
increase the chance for
survival, esp. when the
environment is changing.
• Ie. Silver colored red fox
in a snowy environment.

1.23b Altered genes may be passed on to every cell that

develops from it. This may help, harm, or have little or no
effect on the offspring’s success in the environment.
 Biodiversity
• In communities populations
of organisms live to • There are between 5
together, interact, and often and 30 million
compete for natural different species.
resources. These
• 99% of all organisms
communities include a
that ever lived are now
collection of niches. The
extinct.
variety and abundance of
species that make up a
biological community is
called biodiversity.
 Biodiversity is Good
• The great diversity of species increases the
chance that at least some living things will
survive in the face of the large changes in the
environment.
• Genetic recombination allows for a greater
diversity.

1.46
 Niches
• Through adaptation, • It includes:
populations often – Where organisms live
become suited to a – What and how they eat
specific niche. – How they raise their
offspring
• Niche- habitat and the – What their predators are
role of a population – Space
plays in that habitat. – Light
– Moisture
– Temperature
 Adaptation
• An adaptation is an • What are some ways
inherited trait that that you know animals
increases a have adapted to their
population’s chance environment?
of survival and
reproduction in a • The ability of an
particular environment. individual to survive
and reproduce in its
specific environment
is fitness.
 Survival of the Fittest
• Individuals that are best suited to an environment
(adaptations that enable fitness) survive and
reproduce most successfully.

• Over time, natural selection results in changes in

the inherited characteristics of a population. These
changes increase a species fitness in its
environment.
 Natural Selection Tutorial

Natural Selection
• 4 Main Points.
1. There is variation with a
population.
2. Some variations are
favorable.
3. Not all young produced in
each generation survive.
4. Individuals that survive
and reproduce are those
with favorable variations.
5. Descent with
Modification
Ostriches are the fasted birds on land due to
1.31 favorable traits such as long, powerful legs.
 Natural Selection
• Natural Selection leads to organisms that are well
suited in particular environments.
• It provides a scientific explanation for the history of
life on Earth as depicted in the fossil record and
similarities evident within the diversity of existing
organisms.

1.32
 Descent with Modification
• Over time, natural • What do you think the
selection produces common ancestor to
organisms that have tigers, panthers and
different structure, cheetahs looked like?
establish different
niches, or occupy • Common descent- all
different habitats. As living and extinct
a result, they look organisms were
different from their derived from a
ancestors. common ancestor.
 Evolution Tutorials
Evolution Lab

Evolution in Action
 Structures
• Homologous Structures- • Vestigial Structures- inherited,
traits that are similar in but reduced in size and often
different species because unused.
the species share a
common ancestor. Ie. Pythons have hip and leg
bones.
Ie. Arm, fin and wing
may have evolved from Analogous structures- those that
the forelimb of a common are similar in function, but are
vertebrate. not inherited from a common
ancestor.
Ie. Insect and Bird Wings
Exploring Evolution
 DNA history
• Scientists rely on • Embryology is the
embryology and study of the early
biochemistry to stages of an organisms
understand evolution. development.
• Biochemists study and
• Gill pouches in all compare chemicals
vertebrates. found in living things.
 Evidence of Evolution
• 1. Fossil Record- layers of earth
• Darwin argued
that living things • 2 Geographical distribution of
have been living species- similar animals
evolving on in different locations were the
Earth for product of different lines of
millions of years. evolutionary descent.
• 3. Homologous structures
• 4. Similarities in early
development (embryology)
Evolution of Populations

Ch. 16
And
Ch. 17 Part 2
 Genetic Variation
• 2 sources
• The more genetic – Mutations
variation within a – Genetic recombination
population, the during meiosis
better chance it
has to survive. Crossing over

• Why?
 Population Genetics
In genetic terms, evolution
• Gene pool- all the is any change in the
combined genetic allele frequency (relative
material of all of the frequency) of alleles in a
members of a given population
population.
• Allele frequency- the • Sexual reproduction can
number of each allele is a produce many different
fraction of all of the phenotypes, but it does
not change the relative
genes for a particular
frequency of alleles in a
trait. (pg. 394) population. Think of
deck of cards. 1.36
Single Gene and Polygenic Traits
• Single gene trait is • Polygenic traits are
controlled by one gene controlled by many
– Widows peak genes.
– Freckles – Body stature
– Dimples – Eye color
– Roll tongue – Height
– Taste PTC
 Natural Selection on Single Gene
Traits
• Natural Selection on • Organisms of one
Single Gene traits can color, may produce
lead to changes in allele fewer offspring than
frequencies…evolution. organisms of other
colors.
• See figure 16-5 pg.
397
 Natural Selection on Polygenic
Traits
• Natural selection can 1. Directional selection
affect the distributions 2. Disruptive selection
of phenotypes in 3 3. Stabilizing selection
ways.
 Directional and Disruptive
Selection
• Directional Selection • Disruptive selection
occurs when a change occurs when an
in the environment environmental change
favors an extreme makes it unfavorable
phenotype. to have a medium
• What is a phenotype phenotype. You need
and what are some an extreme one.
examples?
• Ie. Peppered moth
Note: Berkley did an experiment and found the conditions
for the moth example, wasn’t 100% the way perceived.
 Testing Natural Selection in Nature
• Rosemary and Peter Grant visited the Galapagos
Islands and did not see the different finches
competing or eating different foods. During the
rainy season, there is plenty of food and finches
are able to eat anything. In the dry season
drought, food becomes scarce and differences in
beak size can mean the difference between life and
death. What time of selection is this?

• Directional
 Directional Selection Example
Directional selection favors those individuals who have
extreme variations in traits within a population. A useful
example can be found in the breeding of the greyhound dog.
Early breeders were interested in dog with the greatest speed.
They carefully selected from a group of hounds those who ran
the fastest. From their offspring, the greyhound breeders again
selected those dogs who ran the fastest. By continuing this
selection for those dogs who ran faster than most of the hound
dog population, they gradually produced a dog who could run
up to 64km/h (40mph).
The greyhound was originally used to hunt the fastest of game,
fox and deer. Their bred dates to Egypt in 3BC.
 Hardy Weinberg Principle
• If a population is not • It states that, under
evolving, the allele specific conditions, allele
frequencies in the frequencies in a
population remain population remain
stable. constant from generation
• This constant state of to generation. If specific
allele frequency is conditions are not met,
called genetic genetic equilibrium in
equilibrium. interrupted and the
population may evolve.
 Maintaining Genetic Equilibrium
• 5 conditions:
1. No natural selection
2. Random mating
3. No migration
4. No significant mutations.
5. Very large population
Hardy-Weinberg Tutorial
 Hardy-Weinberg equations for population with 2
alleles at a locus (but only works if one assumes
random mating):

p+q=1
Generation 1

Frequency Frequency of
A allele a allele

Generation 2 p 2 + 2 pq + q 2 =1
Frequency Frequency of Frequency
of AA
Aa genotype of aa
genotype
genotype
 Genetic Drift
• Genetic Drift is the random
• “Bottlenecking” is
change in allele frequencies in
when genetic drift
a population due to chance
occurs after a random
events, such as natural
population reducing
disasters or migration. (Would
event.
genetic drift have a greater
impact on smaller or larger • The more variation,
populations?) the easier it is to
survive because they
can adapt better.
Ex. Florida Panther- hunted-less
genetic variation- Texas
cougars introduced
1.36
 Founder effect
• Allele freq. change as a result of the
migration of a small subgroup of
population.
• Will the new population become different
or more like the parent population?
• Due to chance
• Ex: Hawaiian Fruit Flies
 Genetic Drift

Let’s show how you get the allele frequencies.

An example is the Cheetah.
 Speciation
• Speciation is the • It can occur when
evolution of one or members of a population
more species from a become isolated from each
single ancestor other. (possibly from
species. earthquakes.)
• Once two populations are
reproductively isolated,
they are considered
separate species.
 Allopatric Speciation
• Aka. Geographical
Isolation
• Physical barrier ( continental
split, rise in sea level, formation
of mountain range, advance of
glacier, change in habitiat)
prevents gene flow between
populations of a species
– Archipelago hotbed of speciation

Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric Speciation in the Grand Canyon
 Behavioral Isolation
• Two populations
are capable of
interbreeding,
but have
differences in
courtship rituals
or other
reproductive
strategies.
 Temporal Isolation
• Two or more species
reproduce at different
times.

• Orchid releasing
pollens on different
days, they can’t
pollinate each other.
 Speciation in Darwin’s Finches
• Speciation in the • 1. Founding of a new
Galapagos finches population.
occurred by: • Geographic isolation
• Changes in new
population’s gene
pool
• Reproductive isolation
• Ecological
competition
 2 major extinctions
• Cretaceous- more than • Permian- reduced the
half of all existing number of species by
species wiped out. 90%.
(Dino’s) • 250 mya during
• 65 mya Pangea- less water
habitat.
Evolution does not occur in a set
direction
• Evolution builds on
what already exists, so
the more variety there
is, the more there can
be in the future.
• However, evolution
does not necessitate
long-term progress in
a set direction.
 Rate of Evolution
• Gradualism- theory that • Punctuated equilibrium-
new species evolve as the theory that populations
genomes of two remain genetically stable for
populations differentiate long period of time,
over enormous spans of interrupted by brief periods
time. of repaid genetic change.
(Small genetic changes • Rapid genetic changes in a
occur slowly within a population can result in the
population.) evolution of new species.
Graduated vs. Punctual
 Mechanisms of Evolution
• Divergent Evolution- • Convergent Evolution-
when isolated populations occurs when natural
of a species evolve selection has produced
independently. It occurs analogous adaptations in
when geographic barriers response to similar
separate population environment between
members or when a small different species.
group leaves an original Ie. Maned Wolf and
population. Serval Cat
• Ex: polar bears and Eat same, legs same,
brown bears ears same.
 Coevolution
• Species that interact • What does the prefix
closely often adapt to co- mean?
one another in a • Ex:
process called – Predatory birds and
mimicry of butterflies
coevolution.
– Parasites and hosts
– Plant-eating animals
and the plants they eat
– Plants and the animals
that pollinate them.
 Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive Radiation is the
evolution of many diversely
adapted species from one
common ancestor. It usually
occurs on an isolated island.

ie. Finches that Darwin

studied all came from
common ancestor, but had
different beaks for the kind of
food they ate.
What differences do you see between the tree finches and ground
finches? Why?
 Patterns of Evolution

Parent
Species

Which is adaptive radiation, divergent, convergent, and

parallel evolution?
 Why is understanding evolution
important?
• Drug resistance to viruses and bacteria
• Pesticide resistance
• Selective Breeding
• Others?

• How do each of these effect you?

 Evolution Review
• Click on the following link and choose your
text book. Use the links to review the
material and take the self-tests.

• Ch. 15,16,17 Review