APPLIED LINGUISTICS TO FOREIGN

LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

APPROACHES AND METHODS FOR FOREIGN
LANGUAGE TEACHING

VLO
LESSON PLAN
AUTUMN 2018
 MAIN ISSUES OF THIS UNIT

• WHAT IS A METHOD?
• WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF A METHOD?
• WHAT IS AN APPROACH?
• OVERVIEW OF MOST WELL KNOWN METHODS IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING.
• DO METHODS HELP TEACHERS?
• PROBLEMS WITH METHODS.
• IS THERE A SUPER METHOD?
WHAT IS A METHOD?
 WHAT IS A METHOD? (1/2)

• ALL METHODS INCLUDE PRESCRIPTIONS FOR

THE TEACHER AND THE LEARNERS.
• ALL METHODS ARE A PRE-PACKAGED SET OF
SPECIFICATIONS OF HOW THE TEACHER
SHOULD TEACH AND HOW THE LEARNER
SHOULD LEARN DERIVED FROM A PARTICULAR
THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND A THEORY OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING.
 WHAT IS A METHOD? (2/2)

• FOR THE TEACHER, METHODS PRESCRIBE WHAT

MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES SHOULD BE USED,
HOW THEY SHOULD BE USED AND WHAT THE
ROLE OF THE TEACHER SHOULD BE.
• FOR LEARNERS, METHODS PRESCRIBE WHAT
APPROACH TO LEARNING THE LEARNER
SHOULD TAKE AND WHAT ROLES THE LEARNER
SHOULD ADOPT IN THE CLASSROOM.
WHAT IS AN APPROACH?
 WHAT IS AN APPROACH? (1/1)

• UNDERLYING EACH METHOD IS A THEORY ON THE NATURE

OF LANGUAGE AND A THEORY ON THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING BOTH OF WHICH COMPRISE THE
APPROACH.
• THESE THEORIES ARE DERIVED FROM THE AREAS OF
LINGUISTICS, SOCIOLINGUISTICS, PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND
ARE THE SOURCE OF PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF
LANGUAGE TEACHING.
 WHAT IS AN APPROACH INFLUENCED
BY?
• THEORY OF LANGUAGE: HOW IS LANGUAGE VIEWED?
‒ STRUCTURAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE.

‒ FUNCTIONAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE.

• THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING: HOW DO

LEARNERS LEARN THE LANGUAGE?
• WHAT ARE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE
PROCESSES INVOLVED (HABIT FORMATION,
INDUCTION, INFERENCING, GENERALIZATION)?
• WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS THAT NEED TO BE MET
 THEORY OF LANGUAGE – FOCUS OF
TEACHING (1/2)

IF LANGUAGE IS SEEN AS A SYSTEM OF

STRUCTURALLY RELATED ELEMENTS FOR THE
CODING OF MEANING:
• WHAT DIMENSION OF LANGUAGE IS
PRIORITIZED?
• GRAMMATICAL DIMENSION.
• WHAT NEEDS TO BE TAUGHT?
 THEORY OF LANGUAGE – FOCUS OF
TEACHING (2/2)

IF LANGUAGE IS VIEWED AS A VEHICLE FOR THE

EXPRESSION OF FUNCTIONAL MEANING:
• WHAT DIMENSION OF LANGUAGE IS PRIORITIZED?
• SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE DIMENSION OF
LANGUAGE.
• WHAT NEEDS TO BE TAUGHT?
• FUNCTIONS, NOTIONS OF LANGUAGE.
COMPONENTS OF A METHOD
 SYLLABUS

• SYLLABUS IS THE LEVEL AT WHICH THEORY IS PUT INTO

PRACTICE AND AT WHICH CHOICES ARE MADE ABOUT THE
CONTENT TO BE TAUGHT, THE SKILLS TO BE DEVELOPED, THE
ORDER OF THE CONTENT ETC.
• THE THEORY OF LANGUAGE ADOPTED WILL AFFECT THE
ORGANISATION AND SELECTION OF LANGUAGE CONTENT.
• DIFFERENT METHODS HAVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SYLLABI
ASSOCIATED WITH THEM I.E. DIFFERENT WAYS OF SELECTING
AND ORGANISING CONTENT.
TEACHING/LEARNING PRACTICES (1/2)

• TYPES OF LEARNING TASKS AND ACTIVITIES TO BE

USED IN THE CLASSROOM.
• ROLES OF LEARNERS IN THE CLASSROOM: THE
DEGREE OF CONTROL THAT LEARNERS HAVE OVER
THEIR LEARNING, ROLES THAT LEARNERS WILL
ASSUME IN THE CLASSROOM, LEARNING
GROUPINGS RECOMMENDED.
• ROLES OF TEACHERS: FUNCTIONS THAT THE
TEACHER IS TO FULFIL IN THE CLASSROOM, THE
TEACHING/LEARNING PRACTICES (2/2)

• ROLE OF MATERIALS: THE FUNCTION OF

MATERIALS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS AND THE
FORMS THEY TAKE. IN SOME METHODS,
MATERIALS ARE DESIGNED TO REPLACE THE
TEACHER SO THAT LEARNING CAN TAKE PLACE
INDEPENDENTLY. IN OTHERS, MATERIALS ARE
TEACHER PROOF SO THAT EVEN POORLY
TRAINED TEACHERS WITH IMPERFECT CONTROL
 ASSESSMENT

• HOW STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE IS TO BE ASSESSED.

• ERROR CORRECTION POLICY.
 HOW DO ALL OF THESE RELATE?

DIFFERENT THEORIES ABOUT THE

NATURE OF LANGUAGE AND techniques
HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED
method
(THE APPROACH) IMPLY DIFFERENT
WAYS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE approac
(THE METHOD) AND DIFFERENT h
METHODS MAKE USE OF
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLASSROOM
ACTIVITIES (THE TECHNIQUES).
EXAMPLES OF METHODS
 GRAMMAR TRANSLATION (1/2)

• TRADITIONAL WAY OF TEACHING LATIN AND

GREEK. IN THE 19TH CENTURY USED TO TEACH
FRENCH, GERMAN AND ENGLISH.
• TYPICAL LESSON CONSISTED OF A)
PRESENTATION OF GRAMMATICAL RULE, B)
SPECIALLY WRITTEN TEXT THAT DEMONSTRATED
THE RULE, C) LIST OF NEW WORDS, D)
TRANSLATION EXERCISES, E) GRAMMAR
 GRAMMAR TRANSLATION (2/2)

• LONG, ELABORATE EXPLANATIONS OF THE

INTRICACIES OF GRAMMAR ARE GIVEN.
• MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION WAS THE MOTHER
TONGUE.
• NO PROVISION FOR THE ORAL USE OF
LANGUAGE.
• LITTLE ATTENTION IS PAID TO THE CONTENT OF
TEXTS, WHICH ARE TREATED AS EXERCISES IN IN
 DIRECT METHOD: EARLY 1900’S
(1/3)
• POSITED BY CHARLES BERLITZ.
• SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IS SIMILAR TO
FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNING.
• EMPHASIS ON:
• ORAL INTERACTION,
• SPONTANEOUS USE OF LANGUAGE,
• NO TRANSLATION,
• LITTLE IF ANY ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL RULES
 DIRECT METHOD: EARLY 1900’S
(2/3)
• CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION WAS CONDUCTED IN THE TARGET
LANGUAGE.
• THERE WAS AN INDUCTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR.
• ONLY EVERYDAY VOCABULARY WAS TAUGHT.
• CONCRETE VOCABULARY WAS TAUGHT THROUGH PICTURES
AND OBJECTS.
• ABSTRACT VOCABULARY WAS TAUGHT BY ASSOCIATION OF
IDEAS.
 DIRECT METHOD: EARLY 1900’S
(3/3)
• NEW TEACHING POINTS WERE INTRODUCED ORALLY.
• COMMUNICATION SKILLS WERE ORGANIZED AROUND
QUESTION-ANSWER EXCHANGES BETWEEN TEACHERS
AND STUDENTS.
• SPEECH AND LISTENING COMPREHENSION WERE
TAUGHT.
• CORRECT PRONUNCIATION AND GRAMMAR WERE
EMPHASISED.
 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (1950’S)
(1/3)
• OUTBREAK OF THE WORLD WAR II:
• HEIGHTENED THE NEED TO BECOME ORALLY PROFICIENT.
• “THE ARMY METHOD” (AN ORAL-BASED APPROACH TO
LANGUAGE LEARNING).
• INFLUENCED BY STRUCTURALISM AND BEHAVIOURISM:
• IDENTIFY THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES AND THE BASIC
SENTENCE PATTERNS.
• PRACTICE THESE PATTERNS BY SYSTEMATIC ATTENTION TO
PRONUNCIATION AND INTENSIVE ORAL DRILLING.
 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (1950’S)
(2/3)

• NEW MATERIAL IS PRESENTED IN DIALOGUE

FORM.
• THERE IS DEPENDENCY ON MIMICRY,
MEMORIZATION OF SET PHRASES, AND
OVERLEARNING.
• BY CONSTANT REPETITION THE LEARNER
DEVELOPS HABITS. LANGUAGE LEARNING IS SEEN
AS ACQUIRING A SET OF APPROPRIATE
 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (1950’S)
(3/3)
• THERE IS LITTLE OR NO GRAMMATICAL EXPLANATION.
GRAMMAR IS TAUGHT INDUCTIVELY.
• GREAT IMPORTANCE IS ATTACHED TO PRONUNCIATION.
• VERY LITTLE USE OF THE MOTHER TONGUE BY TEACHERS IS
PERMITTED.
• SUCCESSFUL RESPONSES ARE REINFORCED.
• THERE IS GREAT EFFORT TO GET STUDENTS TO PRODUCE
ERROR-FREE UTTERANCES.
 TYPICAL AUDIOLINGUAL ACTIVITIES
(1/2)

• DIALOG MEMORIZATION.
• REPETITION DRILL: STUDENTS REPEAT THE
TEACHER’S MODEL AS ACCURATELY AND AS
QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE TO LEARN THE LINES OF
THE DIALOG.
• TRANSFORMATION DRILL: THE TEACHER GIVES
STUDENTS A CERTAIN KIND OF SENTENCE
PATTERN. STUDENTS ARE ASKED TO TRANSFORM
 TYPICAL AUDIOLINGUAL ACTIVITIES
(2/2)

• COMPLETE THE DIALOG: SELECTED WORDS ARE

ERASED FROM A DIALOG. STUDENTS COMPLETE
THE DIALOG BY FILLING THE BLANKS WITH THE
MISSING WORDS.
• E.G. LUCY: I HEAR MARY GOT THE FIRST PRIZE IN THAT
PAINTING COMPETITION.
• ROSE: …
• LUCY: DID SHE REALLY?
• ROSE: YES SHE DID. I SAW HER PAINTING AND IT
 DESIGNER METHODS (HUMANISTIC
APPROACHES) 1970’S 1980’S
• INFLUENCED BY PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
PSYCHOTHERAPY.
• DEVELOPED IN 70’S AND 80’S MAINLY IN US.
• THE SILENT WAY.
• TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE.
• SUGGESTOPEDIA.
• COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING.
 THE SILENT WAY (CALEB GATTEGNO)
(1/2)
• CHARACTERIZED BY A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH.
• DEVELOPS INDEPENDENCE AND AUTONOMY AND
ENCOURAGES STUDENTS TO COOPERATE WITH EACH OTHER.
• LEARNING IS FACILITATED IF THE LEARNER DISCOVERS OR CREATES
RATHER THAN REMEMBERS AND REPEATS WHAT IS TO BE LEARNED.
• LEARNING IS FACILITATED BY ACCOMPANYING (MEDIATING)
PHYSICAL OBJECTS).
• LEARNING IS FACILITATED BY PROBLEM SOLVING THE MATERIAL TO
BE LEARNED.
THE SILENT WAY (CALEB GATTEGNO) (2/2)

[1]
SOUND-COLOUR CHART: EACH COLOUR
SYMBOLIZES ONE SOUND.

Approaches and Methods for Foreign Language Teaching 30

 TYPICAL TECHNIQUES (1/3)

• SOUND-COLOUR CHART: THE TEACHER REFERS

STUDENTS TO A COLOR-CODED WALL CHART
DEPICTING INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS IN THE TARGET
LANGUAGE - STUDENTS USE THIS TO POINT OUT
AND BUILD WORDS WITH CORRECT
PRONUNCIATION.
• TEACHER'S SILENCE: TEACHER IS GENERALLY
SILENT, ONLY GIVING HELP WHEN IT IS
 TYPICAL TECHNIQUES (2/3)

• SELF-CORRECTION GESTURES: TEACHER USES

HANDS TO INDICATE THAT SOMETHING IS
INCORRECT OR NEEDS CHANGING - E.G.. USING
FINGERS AS WORDS THEN TOUCHING THE
FINGER/WORD THAT IS IN NEED OF
CORRECTION.
• WORD CHART: WORDS ARE DEPICTED ON
CHARTS, THE SOUNDS IN EACH WORD
 TYPICAL TECHNIQUES (3/3)

• FIDEL CHART: A CHART THAT IS COLOR-CODED

ACCORDING TO THE SOUND-COLOUR CHART
BUT INCLUDES THE VARIOUS ENGLISH SPELLINGS
SO THAT THEY CAN BE DIRECTLY RELATED TO
ACTUAL SOUNDS.
 SUGGESTOPEDIA (1/6)

ONE OF THE INNOVATIVE METHODS DATING BACK TO THE 1970’S

(GEORGI LOZANOV). LOZANOV SUGGESTS THAT THE HUMAN BRAIN
COULD PROCESS GREAT QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL IF SIMPLY GIVEN THE
RIGHT CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING, AMONG WHICH ARE A STATE OF
RELAXATION AND GIVING OVER THE CONTROL OF THE TEACHER. MUSIC
IS CENTRAL TO THIS METHOD. LOZANOV (1982) INDICATES THAT THIS
METHOD TRANSCENDS THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM AND CAN BE
APPLIED IN OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS. HE CLAIMS THAT ABOUT 200 TO
240 NEW WORDS MAY BE INTRODUCED EACH LESSON.
 SUGGESTOPEDIA (2/6)

• LEARNING IS FACILITATED IN AN ENVIRONMENT

THAT IS AS COMFORTABLE AS POSSIBLE,
FEATURING SOFT CUSHIONED SEATING AND DIM
LIGHTING.
• "PERIPHERAL" LEARNING IS ENCOURAGED
THROUGH THE PRESENCE IN THE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT OF POSTERS AND DECORATIONS
FEATURING THE TARGET LANGUAGE AND
 SUGGESTOPEDIA (3/6)

• SELF-PERCEIVED AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS

TO LEARNERS' POTENTIAL TO LEARN ARE
"DESUGGESTED".
• STUDENTS ARE ENCOURAGED TO BE CHILD-LIKE,
TAKE "MENTAL TRIPS WITH THE TEACHER" AND
ASSUME NEW ROLES AND NAMES IN THE TARGET
LANGUAGE IN ORDER TO BECOME MORE
"SUGGESTIBLE".
 SUGGESTOPEDIA (4/6)

• STUDENTS WORK FROM LENGTHY DIALOGS IN

THE TARGET LANGUAGE, WITH AN
ACCOMPANYING TRANSLATION INTO THE
STUDENTS' NATIVE LANGUAGE.
• ERRORS ARE TOLERATED, THE EMPHASIS BEING
ON CONTENT AND NOT STRUCTURE. GRAMMAR
AND VOCABULARY ARE PRESENTED AND GIVEN
TREATMENT FROM THE TEACHER, BUT NOT DWELT
 SUGGESTOPEDIA (5/6)

• HOMEWORK IS LIMITED TO STUDENTS RE-

READING THE DIALOG THEY ARE STUDYING -
ONCE BEFORE THEY GO TO SLEEP AT NIGHT AND
ONCE IN THE MORNING BEFORE THEY GET UP.
• MUSIC, DRAMA AND "THE ARTS" ARE INTEGRATED
INTO THE LEARNING PROCESS AS OFTEN AS
POSSIBLE.
SUGGESTOPEDIA (6/6)
 TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (1/2)

• TPR IS AN APPROACH TO TEACHING A SECOND

LANGUAGE, BASED ON LISTENING LINKED TO
PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES WHICH ARE DESIGNED TO
REINFORCE COMPREHENSION.
• TPR IS A METHOD DEVELOPED BY DR. JAMES J. ASHER
TO AID LEARNING SECOND LANGUAGES.
• THE METHOD RELIES ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT
WHEN LEARNING A SECOND OR ADDITIONAL
LANGUAGE, THAT LANGUAGE IS INTERNALIZED
 TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (2/2)

• SUCCESSFUL SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

SHOULD BE A PARALLEL PROCESS TO CHILD FIRST
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
• APPROPRIATE ACTIVITIES CAN PRODUCE STRESS-FREE
LEARNING.
• LEARNERS ARE ENCOURAGE TO SPEAK WHEN THEY
FEEL READY TO SPEAK.
• THEORY OF LANGUAGE:
• A GRAMMAR BASED VIEW OF LANGUAGE.
 COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (1980S) (1/2)
• AN EMPHASIS ON LEARNING TO COMMUNICATE THROUGH INTERACTION IN
THE TARGET LANGUAGE. AUTHENTIC AND MEANINGFUL COMMUNICATION
SHOULD BE THE GOAL OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES.

• THE INTRODUCTION OF AUTHENTIC TEXTS INTO

THE LEARNING SITUATION.
• THE PROVISION OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR
LEARNERS TO FOCUS, NOT ONLY ON THE
LANGUAGE BUT ALSO ON THE LEARNING
PROCESS ITSELF.
 COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (1980S) (2/2)

• AN ENHANCEMENT OF THE LEARNER'S OWN

PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AS IMPORTANT
CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS TO CLASSROOM
LEARNING.
• AN ATTEMPT TO LINK CLASSROOM LANGUAGE
LEARNING WITH LANGUAGE ACTIVATION OUTSIDE
THE CLASSROOM.
• FLUENCY IS AN IMPORTANT DIMENSION OF
COMMUNICATION.
 TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING
(1/2)

• TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING (TBLL) IS A

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION WHICH FOCUSES ON THE
USE OF AUTHENTIC LANGUAGE, AND STUDENTS
DOING MEANINGFUL TASKS USING THE TARGET
LANGUAGE; FOR EXAMPLE, VISITING THE DOCTOR,
CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW, OR CALLING
CUSTOMER SERVICES FOR HELP.
• ASSESSMENT IS PRIMARILY BASED ON TASK
OUTCOME (IE: THE APPROPRIATE COMPLETION OF
 TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING
(2/2)
• IN TBLL THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER CHANGES FROM THAT OF
AN INSTRUCTOR AND PROSECUTOR OF ERRORS TO THAT OF
A SUPPORTER AND INVENTOR OF TASKS WHICH HER/HIS
LEARNERS ENJOY DOING.
• IT PROVED USEFUL TO DIVIDE THE LEARNING PROCESS IN TBLL
IN THREE PHASES: THE PRE-TASK PHASE, THE DOING OF THE
TASK, AND THE POST-TASK PHASE. TAKEN TOGETHER THEY
FORM A TASK CYCLE. THE MAJOR ROLE OF THE TEACHER
CHANGES FROM PHASE TO PHASE.
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
METHODS (1/4)

• NO GENERAL AGREEMENT ON WHAT METHOD IS:

ANY PRINCIPLED CHOICE OF TECHNIQUES CAN BE
TERMED “METHOD”.
• SOME METHODS NOT BASED ON CLEAR
LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORY.
• METHODS ARE OPEN TO WIDE INTERPRETATION
BY MATERIALS DEVELOPERS AND TEACHERS.
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
METHODS (2/4)

• METHODS THAT PRESENT THEMSELVES AS “STATE

OF THE ART” HAVE IN ESSENCE BEEN AROUND
FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS. TOTAL CORPUS OF
IDEAS AVAILABLE TO LANGUAGE TEACHERS HAS
NOT BASICALLY CHANGED IN 2000 YEARS. IN
ESSENCE METHODS REPRESENT DIFFERENT
CONFIGURATIONS OF THE SAME BASIC OPTIONS.
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
METHODS (3/4)

• THE RISE AND FALL OF METHODS IS MAINLY DUE TO THE

INFLUENCE OF PROFIT SEEKERS, PROMOTERS AND FORCES
OF THE INTELLECTUAL MARKETPLACE. METHODS BECOME
INFLUENTIAL WHEN THEY GAIN THE SEAL OF APPROVAL
BY UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS.
• LANGUAGE TEACHING IS A MASSIVE INDUSTRY WHERE
MUCH IS DONE IN THE NAME OF PROFIT AND GLORY.
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
METHODS (4/4)

• MOST METHODS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED IN WESTERN

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (US AND UK). FALLACY THAT
ANYTHING IMPORTED BY US AND UK IS BY NATURE
EFFECTIVE AND ADVANCED.
• METHODS DEVELOPED IN A SPECIFIC EDUCATIONAL,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT CANNOT BE
EXPORTED WHOLESALE AND USED IN COUNTRIES
WITH DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHIES, VALUES AND BELIEFS.
ECLECTIC APPROACH IN TEACHING
ENGLISH (1/2)
• LARSEN-FREEMAN (2000) AND MELLOW (2000)
BOTH HAVE USED THE TERM PRINCIPLED
ECLECTICISM TO DESCRIBE A DESIRABLE,
COHERENT, PLURALISTIC APPROACH TO
LANGUAGE TEACHING.
• ECLECTICISM INVOLVES THE USE OF A VARIETY OF
LANGUAGE LEARNING ACTIVITIES, EACH OF
WHICH MAY HAVE VERY DIFFERENT
ECLECTIC APPROACH IN TEACHING
ENGLISH (2/2)
• THE USE ECLECTICISM IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT
THERE ARE STRENGTHS AS WELL AS WEAKNESSES
OF SINGLE THEORY BASED METHODS. RELIANCE
UPON A SINGLE THEORY OF TEACHING HAS BEEN
CRITICIZED BECAUSE THE USE OF A LIMITED
NUMBER OF TECHNIQUES CAN BECOME
MECHANIC.
• THE TEACHER DECIDES WHAT METHODOLOGY OR
 ADVANTAGES OF AN ECLECTIC
APPROACH
• SAFETY: THE USE OF A VARIETY OF IDEAS AND
PROCEDURES FROM DIFFERENT EXISTING APPROACHES
AND METHODS WILL INCREASE THE CHANCES OF
LEARNING TAKING PLACE.
• INTEREST: TEACHERS NEED TO USE DIFFERENT
TECHNIQUES TO HOLD THE LEARNERS' ATTENTION.
• DIVERSITY: DIFFERENT LEARNING/TEACHING CONTEXTS
REQUIRE DIFFERENT METHODOLOGIES.
• FLEXIBILITY: AWARENESS OF A RANGE OF AVAILABLE
TECHNIQUES WILL HELP TEACHERS EXPLOIT MATERIALS
 REFERENCES

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2000). TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES

IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MELLOW, J. D. (2000). WESTERN INFLUENCES ON
INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE TEACHING. IN J. REYHNER, J.
MARTIN, L. LOCKARD, & W. SAKIESTEWA GILBERT
(EDS.), LEARN IN BEAUTY: INDIGENOUS EDUCATION FOR
A NEW CENTURY (PP. 102-113). FLAGSTAFF, AZ:
NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY.