DESIGN FOR TEMPERATE AND UPLAND ZONES

1. Climate and design in general

2. Settlement planning
3. Topographical location of settlements
4. Hazards
5. Urban forms and external space
6. Building design
7. Orientation of buildings
8. Shape and volume
9. Type and form of buildings
10.Immediate external space
11.Building components
12.Foundations, basements and floors
13.Walls
14.Openings and windows
15.Roofs
16.Special topics
16.A Shading devices
16.B Natural ventilation
16.C Passive heating
1. CLIMATE AND DESIGN IN GENERAL

• The temperate and upland climate is characterized by three seasons. A hot and dry season, usually the longest period, is
followed by a wet and warm season, the monsoon period. In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude,
temperatures can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas daytime temperatures are moderate and the
solar radiation intense. Design objectives and response
• This type of climate is the most complex one from the designer’s point of view.
• Buildings must satisfy conflicting needs of hot-dry and warm-humid periods. Rules given in the respective previous chapters
are hence partly applicable also in the temperate zone. In addition, in the upland areas, the designer must consider the
principles of heat conservation and solar heat gain, and sometimes active heating as well.
• Buildings should not cool down too much during the cold nights and should not overheat during periods of strong radiant
heat gain.
• A moderate amount of thermal mass, together with moderately-sized openings and sufficient thermal insulation properties
will provide acceptable conditions for the major part of the time.

2. SETTLEMENT PLANNING

The main points :

• Topography, south sloping preferred.
• Orientation, so as to benefit from the winter sun.
• Protection from winter winds.
• Form, semi-compact.
• Hazards, floods, landslides and falling rocks must be considered.

Basic considerations
• With conflicting seasonal requirements, different solutions may be equally appropriate. The advantages and disadvantages
should be weighed together, considering not the extreme, but the prevailing climatic conditions. Buildings can be arranged
rather freely.
• Settlements should be semi-compact to provide mutual shelter from wind in the cold season but also to take advantage of
the sun radiation.
• Nevertheless, the prevailing breezes in humid and hot seasons should not be cut off and sufficient shade should be provided.
3. TOPOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF SETTLEMENTS

Sun and wind orientation

In lowland regions settlements should be exposed to the wind and protected from the sun. In winter the opposite is required:
Exposure to the sun and protection from the wind.
In upland regions, shelter against the wind and orientation for maximum solar radiation gain are required all the year round.
Sites oriented south-southeast and located in the middle or the lower middle of a slope are preferred. Here solar gain is best.
Excessive wind effects as well as cool air pools should be avoided. The layout of town structures should follow the same goal of
sheltering against winds and utilizing the effects of the sun’s heat.

 Especially in areas of intensive land use buildings should be located on

south slopes, where the sun exposure is adequate.

 Depressions should be avoided because cold air accumulates there.

Above the bottom of the valley the microclimate is more favourable

 Houses should be located behind a wind shield, but be assured of

exposure to the sun. This shield can be formed by existing or newly
planted vegetation, by other structures or by topography.
4. URBAN FORMS AND EXTERNAL SPACE

• Settlement pattern
Aspects of proper sun orientation and wind protection should already be considered while working out the basic pattern of a
settlement. This pattern should be of a semi-compact type.
The plot dimensions should allow the positioning of a building with its wider side facing south and sufficient distance from the
neighbouring buildings. Provision for row buildings along the east-west axis may also be favoured.

• Streets
Streets are best planned in the direction of summer winds, avoiding the direction of winter winds.

• Public external space design

The outdoor space - as in all warm regions - should be actively used. It should be planned to provide a well-balanced mix of
open, sunny areas for the cold season and shaded, well-ventilated areas for the warm period.

• Deciduous plants
Open squares with groups of trees to provide shade are desirable. Planting of deciduous trees and pergolas with deciduous
creepers are a possibility.

• Traditional examples
An analysis of traditional settlements provides valuable hints for appropriate solutions.
A good example is Bhumra, a village in the higher hilly region of West Nepal. This settlement also provides efficient wind
protection and takes full advantage of the sun’s radiation. Flat roofs are actively used as outdoor living and working spaces,
where favourable climatic conditions prevail during the daytime.

5. BUILDING DESIGN

The main points

• Orientation and room placement should be south facing.
• Form depends on precipitation pattern.
• Shade in summer and heat gain in winter is necessary.
• Ventilation must be controllable.
6. HAZARDS

In this region, floods, storms and earthquakes often have to be considered, too. In mountainous regions, landslides and rockfalls
require special attention.

7. ORIENTATION OF BUILDINGS

• Sun orientation
The orientation of the building greatly influences the solar heat gain; it should thus be carefully considered. Normally, buildings
should have an elongated shape along the east-west axis. The southern front can easily be designed for proper utilization of the
winter sun and for protection against the summer sun. Windows on the eastern side receive substantial heat during the
morning, which may be highly appreciated in winter time. Usually, larger windows on the west side are to be avoided, as the
solar heat gain through these would coincide with the highest air temperatures. To achieve a proper sun penetration for natural
lighting, solar heat gain and hygiene, the depth of the interior should not be excessive.

• Wind orientation
Buildings should be arranged so that they benefit from summer winds because this season is usually humid and a proper cross-
ventilation is required for cooling and hygienic reasons (prevention of mould growth). Shelter should be provided from the
winter winds.

8. SHAPE AND VOLUME

• Buildings are preferably rather compact. However, because of the conflicting climatic conditions, several solutions are
possible, depending on local topographical conditions and functional requirements.
• Heating in winter becomes more important than cooling in summer. Hence, rather compact structures with minimal but
proper sun-oriented exterior surfaces are desirable.
9. TYPE AND FORM OF BUILDINGS

• Room arrangements
A moderately compact internal room arrangement is of benefit for most of the year. Courtyard buildings are suitable, terraced
buildings facing south may also be appropriate. In cooler areas, exposure of the main rooms to the winter sun is essential,
whereas in warmer areas these rooms can also be placed north facing.

• The concept of thermal zones

Heat losses can be efficiently reduced by dividing the house into zones with higher and lower heat demands, according to
their functions. The zone with the higher heat demand, such as living rooms, is placed facing towards the sun (south). The
zones with less heat requirements, e.g. sleeping areas, kitchen, stores, entrance etc., are arranged around the warm zone on
the west, north and east side, providing protection against heat loss and wind. This zone functions as a thermal buffer. An
external belt of vegetation or other adjoining buildings and parapet walls may provide additional protection.

• Ventilation in warm zones

In the warmer areas, humidity can cause problems during the monsoon period,
Hence, arrangements for a proper cross-ventilation are necessary. The separation
of humidity-producing areas such as kitchen and bathrooms from the rest of the
building is recommended.

• Building components for different seasons

In this type of climate, it would seem reasonable, to conceive one part of the
building for the cold period and another one for the warm period.
One solution would be a building type which is also useful in hot-dry and
maritime areas, consisting of a ground floor with massive walls and an upper
floor of a light structure . The ground floor would be relatively cool in the daytime
and relatively warm at night. The light structure on the upper floor would
perform the opposite way. As a consequence, in the winter time the inhabitants
would use the upper floor in the daytime and the ground floor at night. In the
summer time the pattern would be reversed.
10. IMMEDIATE EXTERNAL SPACE

The outdoor space should also be designed as a compromise with ventilation and shade in summer, and wind protection and
solar radiation gain in winter. The vegetation should be planned accordingly, to provide partly sunny and partly shaded spaces.
Deciduous trees are an excellent medium with which to achieve this goal.

11. BUILDING COMPONENTS

The main points

• Medium heat storage capacity and time lag is required.
• Thermal insulation is needed in upland areas.
• Reflectivity and emissivity is less important.

 Thermal storage and time lag

Heat accumulated during the daytime should be stored by an adequate thermal capacity of the walls, ceilings and floors to
balance the temperature. A properly dimensioned thermal mass means that rooms do not overheat during days with high
temperature and high solar radiation gain, and do not cool out too much at night, or even during the following cooler day.
A too excessive thermal mass should be avoided. This is especially important in upland areas. A large thermal mass would make
the space almost unheatable during the evening hours of the cold season. The time lag should not exceed 8 hours, which is
equivalent to the time lag of a concrete wall of 20 cm thickness.

 Thermal insulation
In upland areas, conductive and radiant heat losses should be minimized. As a consequence, the use of thermal insulation
material may be appropriate.

 Reflectivity and emissivity

In cool upland regions it is important that during the daytime radiant heat is absorbed in the building shell and radiant heat loss
at night is minimized.
As a consequence, the outer surfaces should posses absorption capacity but low emissivity.
Absorbant surfaces are generally darker and non-shiny. Such surfaces should, however, only be used for buildings with a high
thermal capacity. Low thermal capacity buildings would immediately overheat.
12. FOUNDATION, BASEMENT AND FLOORS

The floor may be in direct contact to the ground, with medium insulation and thermal storage capacity. In upland regions,
materials with low thermal transmission properties are suitable (e.g. timber). In addition, thermal insulation may be required.
Floor areas receiving direct solar radiation should possess absorption properties and a heat storage capacity.

13. WALLS

The cooler the climate, the better the thermal insulation and air-tightness of the outer walls should be.
A medium heat storage capacity of internal and outer walls is appropriate to avoid overheating in the daytime and keep the
night temperature at comfort level.
Surfaces should generally have medium colours. In warmer regions a bright surface with higher reflectivity is appropriate.
Absorptive, dark surfaces are possible in recessed areas, where the summer sun does not reach.
In upland regions joints between construction elements should be well-sealed against air penetration. The application of a
wallpaper to the inner surface is efficient in this respect.

14. Openings and windows

• Size and placement

Windows should be of medium size with openings on opposite walls for proper cross-ventilation during the humid period.
On the west and north side windows should be small. As a rule of thumb, the total window area should not exceed 25% of the
floor area.
In upland areas, as many windows as possible should be located on the south side of the building to utilize the heating effect
of solar radiation. However, the glazed area should not exceed 50% of the south elevation because of extensive heat loss at
night.
Excessive glazing can lead to overheating. This can be counteracted by
• the provision of adequate shading,
• the provision of ventilation,
• sufficient heat storage capacity.
Windows should be equipped with tightly closing glazed panels, which provide protection against heat loss during the cold
season and also against flow of heat and dusty air during the dry and hot season.
Construction details for windows

a) Joints
The joints between the window frames and the adjoining walls are an often neglected detail. They should be airtight and,
therefore, carefully sealed.

Airtight joints

b) Double glazing
Double glazed leaves could be an advantage. However, it is not easy to build them to function properly, because the space
between the two glazed panels needs to be accessible for cleaning.

c) Air-tightness
More important than double glazing is good workmanship, particularly with regard to the grooves. To achieve air-tightness is
the most crucial point, because the loss of warm air trough the grooves usually accounts for much more than the loss of heat
by conduction through window panes. Double-groove window panels could bring a considerable improvement, suitable
hinges, however, are often not available.

Double groove window

d) Double leaves
Another possible improvement, which utilizes conventional hinges, is the use of double leaves, one opening to the outside and
the other to the inside. The technique is simple, but has the disadvantage that the application of mosquito screens is almost
impossible.

Double leaf window

e) Solid shutters
Instead of a second glazed leave a solid timber panel can also be used. This would provide a better heat insulating effect for
cold nights as well as for hot daytime conditions.

f) Curtains
For additional thermal insulation at night heavy drapes closing rather tightly against the window frame can also be used.

g) Insulated shutters
A very efficient, but rather expensive solution is the use of insulated internal shutters, placed inside or outside of the window
leaves.

h) Timber quality
For the construction of windows and doors it is very important to use well-seasoned timber. Only then will panels remain
straight and airtight.
15. ROOFS

1.Waterproofing
The roof should protect the building from precipitation and therefore be carefully waterproofed.

2.Thermal insulation
The roof should provide protection against heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter. The roof should, therefore, have
thermal insulation properties.

3. Reflectivity
Usually a multilayer construction is required. The reflectivity and emissivity of the outer surface is then of minor importance.

4. Heat storage
The construction should have a medium heat storage capacity to balance temperature fluctuations between the daytime and
evening hours, and also in case of sudden weather changes. This storage mass must be situated inside the insulation layer.

5.Airtightness
In upland regions the construction should be airtight, the joints between construction elements requiring special care

16. SPECIAL TOPICS

A. Shading devices

• Design
In the hot period, windows must be protected from solar radiation and glare. In the cold season, however, solar heat gain
through openings is desired. Hence, shading devices should be movable, which involves a somewhat complicated mechanism
and also the attendance of the inhabitants.
An other possibility is a well-balanced design aiming at an optimal direct solar gain in winter and good shading in summer.
A careful climatic analysis will provide an assessment, at what time direct gain is desirable and when not.
 Solar angle consideration
• Shading of walls
Walls do not need extra shading devices in this type of climate, provided they possess reasonably good insulation and
reflective properties.

• Vegetation
Deciduous trees are suitable for shading purposes. Such shading trees are best located on the east and west side of a building.
Vegetation which is too dense and too close to the building should be avoided because of dampness effect.

Deciduous trees provide access to winter sun but protect against summer sun
• Vegetation cover on facades

A green cover on outer walls and roof has many advantages:

1. It protects the walls against driving rain.
2. The wind velocity on the surface is reduced and with it the cooling-off period.
3. Glare is eliminated

B. Natural ventilation

• Relation to winds
Protection against cold winter winds should be balanced by proper ventilation during hot and humid periods. Therefore,
regulated air movement is a primary requirement. This can be achieved by well planned openings with shutters.

• Ventilation openings
Preferably, special openings for ventilation should be provided. Two small openings, one at a high level and one at a low level,
or ventilating stacks may be solutions. The disadvantage of such special arrangements lies in the fact that they are often
neglected by the inhabitants, with the result that warm or cold air enters the room at undesired times. The warmer the
climate and the higher the humidity, the more important is it to provide cross-ventilation.

• Vegetation
To counteract the winter wind direction, evergreen windbreakers are desirable. However, trees should not block the prevailing
summer breezes. Evergreen trees are best for wind protection, whereas deciduous trees are suitable for shading purposes.

Regulation of ventilation by evergreens and deciduous bushes

C. Passive heating

The possibilities of space heating by means of passive solar radiation have been excessively dealt with in the technical
literature of recent years, but the main principles have been known for a long time. Traditional buildings often include a fine
synthesis of a balanced use of solar energy. The advantages are obvious: the consumption of firewood or other fuels can be
reduced, which, in these days, is extremely important ecologically.
The basic idea was formulated by Socrates, who designed a concept with three elements:

• Capturing as much winter sun as possible

• Keeping out solar radiation in summer time
• Using a thermal buffer zone towards the north

1. Summer sun
2. Winter sun
3. Covered verandah
4. Living room
5. Storeroom as thermal buffer zone
6. Insulated wall towards the north

The concept designed by Socrates

• Green effect
The function of the solar gain process using glazed surfaces is based on the "greenhouse effect". This means that solar
radiation can easily pass through glass. When it strikes an absorptive surface behind the glass, it is converted into longwave
heat radiation which cannot pass directly through the glass anymore. As a result the materials behind the glass heat up.

• Passive solar systems

Three main principles used for passive solar gain can be distinguished: direct solar gain, indirect solar gain and attached green
house.

• Passive solar gain

The sun’s rays enter through the windows into the rooms which are required to be heated and the heat is stored in the walls,
floors and ceilings. The sun’s rays enter the building through the windows and strike the floors, walls and objects in the rooms,
where the greatest part is absorbed and converted into heat.

The floor as collector and heat storage mass

Internal walls as collector and heat storage mass

The ceiling as collector and heat storage mass

• Indirect solar gain
The sun’s rays are captured by various kinds of solar collectors, where the accumulated heat can be transferred to the room in
a controlled way.
Commonly known systems are:

a) Trombe wall
A massive wall with a dark surface is placed behind a glazed surface. It absorbs the sun’s rays and conducts the heat slowly
through the wall to the inside of the building. From here the heat is transferred to the rooms both by radiation and by
convection. Adobe and burned clay bricks are the materials with the best properties for trombe wall constructions. A
disadvantage of the trombe wall is that it covers a great part of the south facing elevation and thus prevents the provision of
windows on this side

Trombe wall with insulated shutter on the outside

b) Solar wall
The solar wall consists of highly absorptive, light materials between a glazed surface and heat insulation. Solar radiant heat is
collected. This is then emitted to the air between the glasspane and the surface of the collector, which transfers the heat to
the rooms. Solar walls can be constructed of corrugated, matt black painted metal sheeting or other building materials which
heat up quickly and which are resistant to high temperatures. They can be incorporated into the building elevation, but they
can also be arranged in a detached way.

Solar wall as an air heating device with internal storage mass Solar wall as cooling device
c) Solar collector
Solar collectors using water as a heat transmitting medium are the most efficient ones. The system also offers more flexibility
in the design because water can easily be transported to the desired place in a controlled manner. However, the technology
requires more expertise and skill than the construction of thermal walls. At high altitudes, there is a danger of freezing.

Solar collector as detached device

d) Water wall
Instead of masonry the wall consists of a metal tank filled with water. Compared to the trombe wall this system conducts heat
much more rapidly because the wall has far less thermal lag and the water convects during heating. The great heat capacity of
water permits for rather thin walls
e) Roof pond
Water walls and roof ponds could be suitable, but are
technically demanding.

f) Heat gain through an attached greenhouse

A greenhouse is built onto the south wall of a house and
functions as a solar collector. During the day excess heat is
transferred by convection into the house, where it is stored in
the floor, walls or ceiling, or in a special heat storage element.
The greenhouse can also be combined with the principles of a
trombe or solar wall.

• The floor of a greenhouse as heat storage

The main advantage of the greenhouse is the attractive
additional room it offers, which can be used as living space
during cold but sunny hours, and as a place to raise vegetables
and flowers as well.
To avoid overheating of the greenhouse, movable shading
devices, preferably placed on the outside, have to be
considered. Large ventilation openings are usually also required.
Solar gain by attached greenhouse shown during day and night function
• The walls of the greenhouse as heat storage area
If a greenhouse is used during the cold season when there is no sunshine, it can easily become a source of heat loss rather
than heat gain. This is also the case during cool nights if it is not properly closed off from the rest of the building.
Free standing heat storage in greenhouse