Routing (Network

Layer)
Network Layer
Routing in Packet Networks
Shortest Path Routing
Network Layer
Network Layer Overview
Network Layer Services
Network Layer Functions
Network Layer Overview
 Network Layer: the most complex layer
 Requires the coordinated actions of multiple,
geographically distributed network elements
(switches & routers)
 Must be able to deal with very large scales
 Billions of users (people & communicating devices)
 Biggest Challenges
 Addressing: where should information be directed to?
 Routing: what path should be used to get information
there?

3
 Network Layer Services
Messages
Messages

Transport Segments Transport

layer layer
Network Network
service service
Network Network Network Network
layer layer layer layer
Data link Data link Data link Data link End
End layer layer layer layer
system
system
Physical Physical Physical Physical β
α layer
layer layer layer

 Network layer can offer a variety of services to transport layer

 Connection-oriented service or connectionless service 4

 Best-effort or delay/loss guarantees

Network Layer Functions
Essential
 Routing: mechanisms for determining the
set of best paths for routing packets requires
the collaboration of network elements
 Forwarding: transfer of packets from NE
inputs to outputs
 Priority & Scheduling: determining order of
packet transmission in each NE
Optional: congestion control, segmentation &
reassembly, security
5
Routing in Packet
Networks
Packet Networks
Routing Tables
Routing Algorithms
IP Addressing
Packet Networks
1 3
6

2 Node
5
(switch or router)

 Three possible (loopfree) routes from 1 to 6:

 1-3-6, 1-4-5-6, 1-2-5-6
 Which is “best”?
 Min delay? Min hop? Max bandwidth? Min cost?
Max reliability? 7
 Routing Tables
Node 3

Node 1 Destination Next node Node 6

Destination Next node 1 1 Destination Next node
2 4 1 3
2 2
4 4 2 5
3 3
4 4 5 6 3 3
6 6 4 3
5 2
6 3 5 5

Node 4
Destination Next node
1 1
2 2
Node 2 Node 5
3 3
Destination Next node Destination Next node
5 5
1 1 6 3 1 4
3 1 2 2
4 4 3 4
5 5 4 4
6 5 6 6

8
Routing Classification

Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive

 based on current Routing
measurements  routing computed in
of traffic and/or topology. advance and off-line

1. centralized 1. flooding
2. isolated
2. static routing
3. distributed using shortest
path algorithms
Computer Networks: Routing 9
 Internetwork Routing
Adaptive Routing

Centralized Distributed Isolated

[RCC]

[IGP] Intradomain routing Interdomain routing [EGP]

Interior [BGP,IDRP] Exterior
Gateway Protocols Gateway Protocols

Distance Vector routing Link State routing

[RIP] [OSPF,IS-IS,PNNI]

Computer Networks: Routing 10

Routing Algorithm: Requirements
 Rapid and accurate delivery of packets
 Must operate correctly
 Rapid convergence
 Responsiveness to changes and avoid routing loops
 Topology or bandwidth changes, congestion
 Freedom from persistent loops
 Optimality
 Resource utilization, path length
 Robustness
 Continues working under high load, congestion, faults
 Simplicity
 Efficient implementation, reasonable processing load
11
Routing Algorithm: Classification
A. Centralized vs Distributed Routing
 Centralized Routing
 All routes determined by a central node
 All state information sent to central node
 Problems adapting to frequent topology changes
 Does not scale
 Distributed Routing
 Routes determined by routers using distributed
algorithm
 State information exchanged by routers
 Adapts to topology and other changes
 Better scalability 12
B. Static vs Dynamic Routing
 Static Routing
 Set up manually, do not change; requires administration
 Works when traffic predictable & network is simple
 Used to override some routes set by dynamic algorithm
 Used to provide default router
 Dynamic Routing
 Adapt to changes in network conditions
 Automated
 Calculates routes based on received updated network
state information
13
C. Flat vs Hierarchical Routing
 Flat Routing
 All routers are peers
 Does not scale
 Hierarchical Routing
 Partitioning: Domains, autonomous systems,
areas...
 Some routers part of routing backbone
 Some routers only communicate within an area
 Scales
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• Example: Non-Hierarchical Addresses and Routing

0000 0001
0111 0100
1010 1 4 1011
1101 1110
3
R1 R2
2 5
0011 0011
0110 0000 1 0001 4 0101
1001 0111 1 0100 4 1000
1100 1010 1 1011 4 1111
… … … …

 No relationship between addresses & routing proximity

 Routing tables require 16 entries each
15
• Example: Hierarchical Addresses and Routing

0000 0100
0001 0101
0010 1 4 0110
0011 0111
3
R1 R2
2 5
1000 1100
1001 00 1 00 3 1101
1010 01 3 01 4 1110
1011 10 2 10 3 1111
11 3 11 5

 Prefix indicates network where host is attached

 Routing tables require 4 entries each
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Shortest Path Routing
Shortest Path Problem
Routing Metrics
Shortest Path Protocols
Shortest Paths Problem
 Many possible paths connect any given
source and to any given destination
 Routing involves the selection of the path to
be used to accomplish a given transfer
 Typically it is possible to attach a cost or
distance to a link connecting two nodes
 Routing can then be posed as a shortest path
problem

18
Routing Metrics
Means for measuring desirability of a path
 Path Length = sum of costs or distances

 Possible metrics
 Hop count: rough measure of resources used
 Reliability: link availability; BER
 Delay: sum of delays along path; complex & dynamic
 Bandwidth: “available capacity” in a path
 Load: Link & router utilization along path
 Cost: $$$

19
Shortest Path Protocols
Distance Vector Protocols
 Neighbors exchange list of distances to destinations

 Best next-hop determined for each destination

 Bellman-Ford (distributed) shortest path algorithm

Link State Protocols

 Link state information flooded to all routers

 Routers have complete topology information

 Shortest path (& hence next hop) calculated

 Dijkstra (centralized) shortest path algorithm 20

6.3.1 Distance Vector
Do you know the way to San Jose?

San Jose 596

21
Distance Vector
Local Signpost Table Synthesis
 Direction  Neighbors exchange
 Distance table entries
 Determine current best

Routing Table next hop

For each destination list:  Inform neighbors
 Periodically
 Next Node
 After changes
 Distance dest next dist

22
 Shortest Path to SJ
Focus on how nodes find their shortest
path to a given destination node, i.e. SJ San
Jose

Dj
Cij
j
i
Di If Di is the shortest distance to SJ from i
and if j is a neighbor on the shortest path,
then Di = Cij + Dj 23
 But we don’t know the shortest
paths

i only has local info

from neighbors San
Dj' Jose
j'
Cij'
Dj
Cij j
i
Cij” Pick current
Di j"
Dj" shortest path
24
Why Distance Vector WorksSJ sends
accurate info

San
2 Hops
1 Hop
From SJ
Jose
3 Hops From SJ
From SJ

Hop-1 nodes
calculate current
(next hop, dist), &
Accurate info about SJ send to neighbors
ripples across network, 25
Shortest Path Converges
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
 Consider computations for one destination d
 Initialization
 Each node table has 1 row for destination d
 Distance of node d to itself is zero: Dd=0
 Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj=, for j d
 Next hop node nj = -1 to indicate not yet defined for j  d
 Send Step
 Send new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
 Receive Step
 At node j, find the next hop that gives the minimum distance to d,

 Minj { Cij + Dj }
 Replace old (nj, Dj(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance
 Go to send step

26
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
 Now consider parallel computations for all destinations d
 Initialization
 Each node has 1 row for each destination d
 Distance of node d to itself is zero: Dd(d)=0
 Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj(d)=  , for j  d
 Next node nj = -1 since not yet defined
 Send Step
 Send new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
 Receive Step
 For each destination d, find the next hop that gives the minimum
distance to d,
 Minj { Cij+ Dj(d) }
 Replace old (nj, Di(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance
found
 Go to send step
27
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, )

1
2
3

Table entry Table entry

@ node 1 @ node 3
for dest SJ for dest SJ
2 3
1 1 San
5 2

4
Jose
3 1 3 6

2
2 5
4
28
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, )

1 (-1, ) (-1, ) (6,1) (-1, ) (6,2)
2
3

D3=D6+1
n3=6
D6=0
2 3 1
1 1
5 2
0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2 5 2
4
2
D5=D6+2 D6=0
n5=6 29
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, )

1 (-1, ) (-1, ) (6, 1) (-1, ) (6,2)
2 (3,3) (5,6) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)
3

3 1
2 3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2 2
5
4
6 2
30
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, )

1 (-1, ) (-1, ) (6, 1) (-1, ) (6,2)
2 (3,3) (5,6) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)
3 (3,3) (4,4) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)

1
3 2 3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4
6 4 2
31
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (3,3) (4,4) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)

1 (3,3) (4,4) (4, 5) (3,3) (6,2)
2
3

1 5
3 2
3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4 4
2
Network disconnected; Loop created between nodes 3 and 4 32
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (3,3) (4,4) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)

1 (3,3) (4,4) (4, 5) (3,3) (6,2)
2 (3,7) (4,4) (4, 5) (5,5) (6,2)
3

5
37 2
3
1 1
5 53 2
0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4
4 2
33
Node 4 could have chosen 2 as next node because of tie
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Initial (3,3) (4,4) (6, 1) (3,3) (6,2)

1 (3,3) (4,4) (4, 5) (3,3) (6,2)
2 (3,7) (4,4) (4, 5) (5,5) (6,2)
3 (3,7) (4,6) (4, 7) (5,5) (6,2)

5 7
7 2 3
1 1
5 2
5 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2 5 2
4
46 2

Node 2 could have chosen 5 as next node because of tie 34

Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

1 (3,3) (4,4) (4, 5) (3,3) (6,2)

2 (3,7) (4,4) (4, 5) (2,5) (6,2)
3 (3,7) (4,6) (4, 7) (5,5) (6,2)
4 (2,9) (4,6) (4, 7) (5,5) (6,2)

79 2 7
3
1 1
5 2
5 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4
6 2

Node 1 could have chose 3 as next node because of tie 35

Counting to Infinity Problem
(a) 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 Nodes believe best
path is through each
(b) 1 2 3 X 4 other
1 1
(Destination is node 4)
Update Node 1 Node 2 Node 3

Before break (2,3) (3,2) (4, 1)

After break (2,3) (3,2) (2,3)
1 (2,3) (3,4) (2,3)
2 (2,5) (3,4) (2,5)
3 (2,5) (3,6) (2,5)
4 (2,7) (3,6) (2,7)
5 (2,7) (3,8) (2,7)
… … … … 36
Problem: Bad News Travels
Slowly
Remedies
 Split Horizon
 Do not report route to a destination to the
neighbor from which route was learned
 Poisoned Reverse
 Report route to a destination to the neighbor
from which route was learned, but with infinite
distance
 Breaks erroneous direct loops immediately
 Does not work on some indirect loops
37
Split Horizon with Poison Reverse
(a) 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 Nodes believe best
path is through
(b) 1 2 3 X 4 each other
1 1

Update Node 1 Node 2 Node 3

Before break (2, 3) (3, 2) (4, 1)
After break (2, 3) (3, 2) (-1, ) Node 2 advertizes its route to 4 to
node 3 as having distance infinity;
node 3 finds there is no route to 4

1 (2, 3) (-1, ) (-1, ) Node 1 advertizes its route to 4 to

node 2 as having distance infinity;
node 2 finds there is no route to 4

2 (-1, ) (-1, ) (-1, ) Node 1 finds there is no route to 4

38
Link-State Algorithm
 Basic idea: two step procedure
 Each source node gets a map of all nodes and link metrics
(link state) of the entire network
 Find the shortest path on the map from the source node to
all destination nodes
 Broadcast of link-state information
 Every node i in the network broadcasts to every other node
in the network:
 ID’s of its neighbors: Ni=set of neighbors of i
 Distances to its neighbors: {Cij | j Ni}
 Flooding is a popular method of broadcasting packets
39
Dijkstra Algorithm: Finding shortest paths in order

Find shortest paths from Closest node to s is 1 hop away

source s to all other
destinations 2nd closest node to s is 1 hop
away from s or w”
3rd closest node to s is 1 hop
w' away from s, w”, or x

z
w
x
s z'
w"
x' 40
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 N: set of nodes for which shortest path already found
 Initialization: (Start with source node s)
 N = {s}, Ds = 0, “s is distance zero from itself”
 Dj=Csj for all j  s, distances of directly-connected neighbors
 Step A: (Find next closest node i)
 Find i  N such that
 Di = min Dj for j  N
 Add i to N
 If N contains all the nodes, stop
 Step B: (update minimum costs)
 For each node j  N
Minimum distance from s to
 Dj = min (Dj, Di+Cij)
j through node i in N 41

 Go to Step A
Execution of Dijkstra’s algorithm
2 2 
1 3 1 1 3 1
6 6 
5 2 5 2
3 3
1 4 1 4 2
2
3 3
2 2
 4 5 4 5

Iteration N D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Initial {1} 3 2 5  
1 {1,3} 3 2 4  3
2 {1,2,3} 3 2 4 7 3 
3 {1,2,3,6} 3 2 4  5 3
4 {1,2,3,4,6} 3 2 4 5  3
5 {1,2,3,4,5,6} 3 2 4 5 3
42
Shortest Paths in Dijkstra’s Algorithm
2 3 1 2 3 1
1 1
6 6
5 2 5 2
3 3
1 4 2 1 4 2
3 3
2 2
4 5 4 5
2 3 1 2 3 1
1 1
6 6
5 2 5 2
3 3
1 4 2 1 4 2
3 3
2 2
4 5 4 5

2 3 1 2 3 1
1 1
6 6
5 2 5 2
3 3
1 4 2 1 4 2
3 3
2 2 43

4 5 4 5
Reaction to Failure
 If a link fails,
 Router sets link distance to infinity & floods the
network with an update packet
 All routers immediately update their link database &
recalculate their shortest paths
 Recovery very quick
 But watch out for old update messages
 Add time stamp or sequence # to each update
message
 Check whether each received update message is new
 If new, add it to database and broadcast
 If older, send update message on arriving link

44
Why is Link State Better?
 Fast, loopless convergence
 Support for precise metrics, and multiple
metrics if necessary (throughput, delay, cost,
reliability)
 Support for multiple paths to a destination
 algorithm can be modified to find best two paths

45