Individual

Behavior
LOGO in Organization
By Dr Shilpi Sarna
 Individual Behavior Introduction

 Human behaviour is complex and every individual is different

from another.
 Individual Behaviour means some concrete action by a person.
 The behaiviour of an individual influenced by various factors
like , his instincts, personality traits, internal feelings, attitude
and perception.
 Individual Behaviour also consist of external environmental
that directly influence individuals.
Foundation of Individual Behaviour
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 Perception

 The world around us is filled with an infinite number of stimuli

that we might attend to, but our brains do not have the
resources to pay attention to everything.
 Perception enables us to navigate the world and to make
decisions about everything.
 The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with
stimuli in the environment and ends with our interpretation of
those stimuli.
 It is a process by which individuals select , organise and
interpret their sensory impressions into meaningful words.

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 Perception- Nature & Need

Nature
Intellectual Process.
Perception is psychological Process.
Perception is Subjective Process.
Perception influenced culturally
Needs
Facilitates Understanding of Human Behaviour
Helps in Behaviour Prediction
Determination of Needs
Effective Subordinate Dealing
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 Components of Perception

Stimuli
Attention
Recognition
Translation
Behaviour
Performance
Satisfaction

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 Perceptual Selectivity

Perceptual selectivity internal factors –

a) Self Concept
b) Beliefs
c) Expectations
d) Inner Needs
External factors –
a) Size
b) Intensity
c) Contrast
d) Repetition
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 Perceptual Organisation

Figure and Ground

Perceptual Grouping
Perceptual Constancy

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 Perceptual Errors

Selective Perception
Halo Effect
Contrast Effect
Projection
Stereotyping
Impression

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Role of perception in Individual Decision making

 Perception allows experts to attend to more delicate

aspects
 Perception helpful in gaining insights for analysis and
conclusion
 Perception process serves factual information
 Perception helpful in construction of understanding.
 Perception decides strengths and weaknesses
 Perception provides clarity in decision making.
 Perception helpful in learning from past experience.
 Perception has both external and internal source of
motivation

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 Learning
 Learning is an important psychological process
determining human behaviour.
 It is continuous process and it occurs all the time.
 Learning may be described as the process of acquiring
the ability to respond adequately to the situation .
Definition- “ learning is the process by which a person
constructs knowledge , skills and capabilities”. Martyn
Sloman
According to E . R Hilgard – “ Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result
of prior experience.

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 Nature of Learning

Learning is Growth
Learning is Adjustment.
Learning is Experience.
Learning involves acquisition
of Knowledge and skills.
Learning involves changes
Learning is Continuous.
Learning is Transferable.

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 Significance of Learning

 It offers significant insights into controlling employee

behaviour.
 It helps managers determine the extent to which an
employees behaviour can be attributed to learning.
 This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent,
and it must last a fairly long time.
 Learning has marked effect on training in organisational
setting.
 It assist managers in optimally developing the talent and
skills of an employee for effective performance.
 Accomplishment of goals.

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 Elements of learning

Motives
Cues
Responses
Reinforcement
Retention
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery

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 Principle of Learning

Reinforcement
- Positive and Negative Reinforcement
- Extrinsic and Intrinsic Reinforcement
- Primary and Secondary Reinforcement

Punishment
- Positive and Negative Punishment

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 Learning Theories

Connectionist Social Learning Cognitive

Classical
Conditioning

Operant
Conditioning

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 Motivation

 Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which

means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals.
 It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish
the goals.
 It involves arousing needs and desire in people to initiate and
direct their behaviour in a purposive manner.

According to S P Robbins – Motivation is the willingness to exert

high levels of effort toward Organisational Goals Conditioned
by effort and ability to satisfy some individual need

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 Nature and characteristics of Motivation

Motivation is a Psychological Concept

Motivation is Dynamic and Situational Process
Motivation is Goal Oriented Process
Motivation is System Oriented
Motivation is Continuous Process
Motivation influenced by Social and Cultural
norms.
Motivation can be Positive or Negative

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 Types of Motivation

Positive & Negative Motivation

Rational & Emotional Motivation
Primary & Secondary Motivation
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
Financial & Non- Financial Motivation

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Theories of Motivation

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Content Theories
Abraham Maslow’s need
Hierarchy Theory

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Herzberg’s Two Factor

Theory

Mc Gregor ‘s Theory X & Y

Mc Clellands’s Need Theory

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Process Theory
Reinforcement Theory

Goal Setting Theory

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Porter & lawler’s Expectancy

Theory

Adam Equity Theory

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 Motivation Theories

 It distinguish between content and process motivation

theories.
 Content theories focus on WHAT, while process theories
focus on HOW human behaviour is motivated.
 Content theories are the earliest theories of motivation.
 Content theories are also called needs theories: they try
to identify what our needs are and relate motivation to
the fulfilling of these needs.
 Process theories are concerned with “how” motivation
occurs, and what kind of process can influence our
motivation.

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

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 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

 There are five level of needs.

 All needs are arranged in Hierarchy.
 A satisfy need is no longer need.
 The psychological and security needs are finite but the needs
of higher order are infinite and are likely to be dominant in
persons at higher in the organisation.
Limitations of Maslow’s Theory
 It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by
same set of needs.
 Different individuals may be driven by different needs at same
point of time.
 The theory is not empirically supported.

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence needs: These include needs for

basic material necessities. It includes an
individual’s physiological and physical safety
needs.
Relatedness needs: Individuals need
significant relationships (be with family, peers or
superiors), love and belongingness, they strive
toward reaching public fame and recognition.
Growth needs: Need for self-development,
personal growth and advancement form
together this class of need.
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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

 ERG theory of motivation is very flexible.

It explains needs as a range rather than as a
hierarchy.
 An employee has various needs that must be
satisfied at the same time.
ERG theory says, if the manager concentrates
only on one need at a time, he or she won’t be
able to motivate the employee effectively and
efficiently.

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 McGregor Theory X and Y Theory

In 1960, McGregor formulated Theory X and

Theory Y and suggesting two aspects of human
behaviour at work.
Two different views of individuals (employees),
one of which is negative, called as Theory X and
the other is positive, so called as Theory Y.
According to McGregor, the perception of
managers on the nature of individuals is based
on above assumptions.

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McGregor Theory X and Y Theory

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 McGregor Theory X and Y Theory

 Quite a few organizations use Theory X today.

 Theory X encourages use of tight control and
supervision.
 It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational
changes.
 Thus, it does not encourage innovation.
 Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques.
 Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority,
teamwork and participative decision making in an
organization.
 Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in which an
employee can make significant contributions in an
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Herzberg ‘s Two factors Theory / Motivation Hygiene

 In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a

two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory.
 There are some job factors that result in satisfaction while there
are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.
 According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No
satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No
Dissatisfaction”.

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Herzberg ‘s Two factors Theory / Motivation Hygiene

Hygiene factors-
 Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance
factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction.
 Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for
existence of motivation at workplace.
 If these factors are absent at workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction.
Motivational factors-
 According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators.
 The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction
 These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance.
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Herzberg ‘s Two factors Theory / Motivation Hygiene

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Herzberg ‘s Two factors Theory / Motivation Hygiene

 The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must

stress upon the adequacy of the hygiene factors to
avoid employee dissatisfaction.
 the managers must make sure that the work is
stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are
motivated to work and perform harder and better.
 Toady’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene factors
because it stop influencing the behaviour of person
when they get them.
 Once Hygiene factors my be the motivators of another.
 The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these
limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is acceptable
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 McClelland ‘s Need Theory of Motivation

 David McClelland proposed McClelland’s theory of

Needs / Achievement Motivation Theory.
 This theory states that human behaviour is affected
by three needs - Need for Power, Achievement and
Affiliation.
 The individuals with high achievement needs are
highly motivated by competing and challenging
work.
 The individuals who are motivated by power have a
strong urge to be influential and controlling.
 These people want to be liked by others.
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McClelland ‘s Need Theory of Motivation

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Process Theory
Reinforcement Theory

Goal Setting Theory

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Porter & lawler’s Expectancy

Theory

Adam Equity Theory

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Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

 Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed

by BF Skinner.
 It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of
its consequences.
 It is based on “law of effect”, i.e, individual’s
behaviour with positive consequences tends to be
repeated, but individual’s behaviour with negative
consequences tends not to be repeated.
 This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling
mechanism for individual’s behaviour.

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Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Positive Reinforcement-
This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behaviour.
This will increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring
again.
Negative Reinforcement-
This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative/
undesirable consequences.
Punishment-
It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the
probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future.
punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing
undesirable behaviour
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Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

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Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an

individual learns behaviour.
Managers who are making attempt to motivate
the employees must ensure that they do not
reward all employees simultaneously.
They must tell the employees what they are not
doing correct.
They must tell the employees how they can
achieve positive reinforcement.

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Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

 Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of

motivation.
 This theory states that specific and challenging goals along
with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task
performance.
 The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main
source of job motivation.
 Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better
performance.
 Goals should be realistic and challenging.
 The more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward
generally and the more is the passion for achieving it

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Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

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Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

Advantages of Goal Setting Theory-

Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for
employees to complete work quickly and effectively.
Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing
motivation and efforts, but also through increasing and
improving the feedback quality.
Limitations of Goal Setting Theory
If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform
actions essential for goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead
to undermining of performance.
Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.

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 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

 Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results

from conscious choices among alternatives.
 Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on
individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge,
experience and abilities.
 He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked
in a person's motivation.
 He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and
Valence to account for this
 Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to
increased performance.
 Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a
valued outcome will be received.
 Valence is the importance that the individual places
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

 Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a

comprehensive theory of motivation.
 This is a multi variate model which explains the relationship
that exists between job attitudes and job performance.
 individual behaviour is determined by a combination of factors
in the individual and in the environment.
 Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who
make conscious decisions about their behaviour in the
organisations.
 Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
 On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between
alternate behaviours and such decided behaviour will lead to
a desired outcome.

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Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation

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Equity Theory of Motivation

 The core of the equity theory is the principle of balance

or equity.
 As per this motivation theory, an individual’s motivation
level is correlated to his perception of equity, fairness
and justice practiced by the management.
 The theory demonstrates that the individuals are
concerned both with their own rewards and also with
what others get in their comparison.
 Employees expect a fair and equitable return for their
contribution to their jobs.

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Equity Theory of Motivation

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 Personality

 The term personality has been derived from Latin word

‘Personare’ which means to speak through.
 Personality is the product of social interaction in group
life.
 It refers to the habits, attitudes as well as physical traits of a
person which are not same but have vary from person to
person.
 Personality is used in terms of influencing others through
external appearance.
According to Schiffman “Personality can be defined as
those inner psychological characteristics that both
determine and reflect how a person respond to his or her
environment.

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Personality- Characteristics

Personality reflects Individual Differences.

Personality is Consistent and Enduring.
Personality is greatly influenced by social
interactions
Personality Can Change.
Personality is neither good nor bad.
It is defined in terms of behaviour.

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 Determinants of Personality

Personality

Cultural Factors Situational Factors

Biological Factors
Heredity Family and Social Others Factors
Brain Factors Temperament
Physical Features Home Environment Interest
Family Members Character
Social Group Motives

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 Personality Attribute Influencing OB

Self Monitoring
Self Esteem
Need Patterns
Locus of Control
Authoritarianism
Machiavellianism
Introversion and Extroversion
Bureaucratic Personality
Risk Taking
Type A and Type B Personality
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Theories of Personality

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